In the ancient world, the concept of publication vastly differed from today’s understanding, encompassing both oral and written dissemination of information. This dual approach was crucial, as many individuals could not read and relied heavily on oral traditions for receiving and transmitting knowledge. However, literacy in early Christianity was not that simple.

Understanding Literacy in the Early Roman Empire

The task of defining literacy during the first three centuries of Christianity in the ancient Roman Empire and measuring the populace’s literacy level is a daunting one. To aid this process, literacy can be broken down into several categories, each representing a different level of literacy.

Complete Illiteracy: Individuals at this level lack reading, writing, and basic math skills and are unable to sign their names. Their employment is typically limited to manual labor such as fruit and vegetable picking, material handling, farming, or working in large workshops producing common items like dishes or pots. Household slaves would also fall into this category.

Partial Literacy: This level includes a rudimentary understanding of spoken and written words and basic math skills, enough for buying goods in the marketplace. These individuals can sign their names and are employed in manual labor positions in the marketplace, as shop assistants performing manual labor, or as soldiers.

Basic Literacy: Here, individuals have a basic understanding of spoken and written words, basic math skills, and the ability to read and write simple words. Their employment could include craftsman, marketplace worker, or soldier.

Functional Literacy: This level includes a competent understanding of spoken words, a beginner to intermediate level understanding of written words, and the ability to prepare basic documents. Individuals in this category can read and write simple sentences and are eligible for jobs such as copyists or scribes.

Advanced Literacy: At this level, individuals have a high skill level in understanding spoken words and an intermediate to advanced understanding of written words. They can prepare short texts and are trained in writing, making them eligible for jobs such as copyists, scribes, tax collectors, or clerks.

Full Literacy: This is the highest level of literacy, with individuals possessing an advanced understanding of spoken and written words. These people can prepare long texts and are professionally trained in writing. They are eligible for high-ranking positions such as copyists, scribes, tax collectors, teachers, lawyers, or clerks to senators.

The Roman Empire, much like modern-day New York City with its five boroughs, was a culturally and ethnically diverse society. Literacy levels varied widely based on factors like location and cultural background. For instance, the literacy requirements in Nazareth would not have been the same as in Rome. Similarly, the value placed on literacy would have varied, with pagans likely placing less importance on it than Jews or Christians.

Contrary to the longstanding historical belief that literacy in the ancient Roman Empire was limited to 10-20 percent of the population, evidence suggests that literacy at all levels was more widespread. The Roman Empire was overflowing with documents of different literary genres, indicating a range of literacies. The literacy level was influenced by factors such as social status, production methods, material used for writing, publication and circulation, languages, types of text, and the people who used them.[1]

Poets like Homer and philosophers such as Socrates primarily published their works through oral means, with their teachings and stories later being transcribed by followers. Similarly, Jesus Christ, a profound teacher and prophet, utilized oral publication to spread his teachings. His method of conveying the good news was through direct, oral communication, often employing parables and poetic forms to facilitate memorization among his listeners. This approach was not only strategic given the context of literacy in his time but also deeply rooted in the cultural practices of oral tradition.

The disciples of Jesus, following his example and direction, continued this practice of oral publication after his death and resurrection. The concept of kerygma, or proclamation, was central to their efforts, echoing the practices of ancient heralds who announced the decrees of kings to the people. The New Testament disciples saw themselves in a similar light, tasked with spreading the message of Jesus’ teachings, death, resurrection, and the promise of salvation. Initially, this proclamation was predominantly oral, reflecting the widespread reliance on spoken communication in the ancient world.

Paul, among other disciples, played a pivotal role in this process, identifying himself as both a herald and an apostle tasked with disseminating the core Christian message. The transition from oral to written publication was gradual, driven by the need to reach a wider audience and preserve the teachings accurately for future generations. Written texts began to play a crucial role, complementing oral traditions by providing a tangible and enduring medium through which the teachings of Jesus and his apostles could be accessed and disseminated.

The Gospels and the letters of the apostles in the New Testament serve as primary examples of this transition. These texts were intended not only to document the teachings and events of Jesus’ life but also to support the ongoing oral proclamation of his message. The written word, in this context, was a tool for ensuring the accuracy and integrity of the Christian message as it was taught and spread across different communities.

The apostle Paul, in particular, expanded his publishing efforts through the writing of epistles, which were circulated among early Christian communities. These letters addressed theological issues, offered guidance, and reinforced the core messages of Christianity, serving as a written extension of the oral tradition. Other apostles, including Peter and John, also contributed to the written corpus of Christian teachings, further solidifying the foundation of Christian doctrine and practice.

This blend of oral and written publication was pivotal in the early Christian church, ensuring that the teachings of Jesus and his immediate followers were preserved and circulated effectively. Without the written records, the teachings could have been subject to alteration and distortion over time. The New Testament documents, therefore, play a critical role in maintaining the authenticity and continuity of the Christian message through the ages. The early church’s publishing efforts, both oral and written, were instrumental in shaping the development and spread of Christianity, providing a model of dissemination that ensured the teachings of Jesus would reach and resonate with successive generations.

Exploring the Preservation and Restoration of Scripture: A Response to Skepticism

Dr. Bart D. Ehrman, an agnostic scholar, questions why, if God miraculously inspired the Bible, He did not also miraculously preserve it without errors in its copies. He suggests that the lack of perfect preservation undermines the idea of divine inspiration. Dr. Dirk Jongkind[2] counters this by stating that while God didn’t provide exhaustive knowledge of every textual detail, He ensured we have abundant access to His words, emphasizing that divine inspiration doesn’t obligate God to preserve every detail for us.

The question of why God didn’t inspire copyists to produce error-free manuscripts is a complex one. It’s important to recognize that not all questions will have complete answers until the second coming of Christ. Some individuals, due to hardened hearts or skepticism, may not be open to any answers, displaying attitudes reminiscent of the Pharisees. It’s crucial to discern these attitudes quickly to avoid fruitless debates.

Understanding the significance of Old and New Testament textual studies is vital for Christian Bible students. These studies form the foundation for accurately translating and interpreting Scripture. The New Testament, in particular, is well-documented, with over 5,898 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts, and 9,300 manuscripts in other languages, providing a rich textual history unparalleled by any other ancient work. This abundance of manuscripts, some dating back to within decades of the originals, offers a solid basis for establishing the New Testament’s text with reasonable certainty.

The preservation and restoration of Scripture, despite the presence of textual variants that have now been restored to the original reading of the original texts, does not undermine its divine inspiration or authority. The meticulous care in manuscript transmission and the wealth of textual evidence available today testify to the reliability of the biblical text. This understanding helps us appreciate the depth and complexity of God’s word, fostering a more profound faith and confidence in its message.

The Original Texts

In the ancient world, the process of “publishing” writings, including those that now make up the New Testament, shared similarities with modern publication practices, albeit on a much smaller scale and with significant differences in technology and dissemination methods. To grasp the early stages of the New Testament text’s development, it’s instructive to consider this process within the context of ancient literary culture.

The original writings or “autographs” of the New Testament were composed by their authors using the available means of writing, which could include pen and ink on papyrus or parchment. These autographs are what the authors initially produced, whether written by their own hand or dictated to an amanuensis (scribe), a secretary who would transcribe the spoken word. For example, the Apostles Paul and Peter are known to have used amanuenses for some of his letters, with Tertius being named in the epistle to the Romans (Rom. 16:22) and Silvanus (Silas) to the first letter of Peter (1 Pet. 5:12).

The process from autograph to published text in the ancient world involved several stages, akin to drafting, revising, and finalizing a text in modern terms. After composing the initial text, authors or their collaborators might revise the work to refine its content or to adapt it for a broader audience. Many scholars today would argue that this is evident in the New Testament writings. The question must be asked, ‘how does one edit the Holy Spirit?’ ‘If the author was moved along by the Holy Spirit and all original Scripture is inspired, why the need for editing?’ What we can say with certainty is that the personal involvement of the author in reviewing and authorizing the text was crucial for its authenticity and integrity. Before addressing these questions, let’s define a couple of the important terms first.

The term “amanuensis” is derived from Latin and refers to a scribe or clerk. In the field of textual criticism, this term takes on a more specific role, referring to a person who served as a secretary to document the firsthand words of a New Testament book. This would occur if the author opted to use a secretary rather than writing the words themselves. Tertius, mentioned in Romans 16:22, serves as an example. The extent to which an amanuensis contributed to the content of any given book is a topic of debate and speculation. At one end, we have the amanuensis who strictly took dictation. Conversely, it’s possible that a New Testament author gave his amanuensis a general idea of what he wanted to communicate, leaving the actual composition of the book to the amanuensis.

The term “autograph” refers to the text that a New Testament author wrote themselves or was written by a scribe under the author’s dictation. If the scribe was taking dictation (as mentioned in Romans 16:22 and 1 Peter 5:12), they may have used shorthand. Regardless of shorthand or longhand, we can presume that both the scribe and the author would review the scribe’s work. The author would have the final say over any corrections, given that the Holy Spirit did not guide the scribe. If the inspired author wrote everything himself under the movement of the Spirit, the final product would be the autograph. This text is also often referred to as the original, leading to interchangeable usage of “autograph” and “original.” At times, textual critics prefer to distinguish, using “original” to refer to the text correctly attributed to a biblical author. This distinction is less strict, not focusing on the process by which a book or letter was written.

Understanding the Process of New Testament Transcription

As was mentioned, Tertius is the scribe that Paul employed to write his letter to the Romans. It’s unreasonable to believe that all of Paul’s companions were skilled readers and writers. Nevertheless, it is logical to deduce that Paul would delegate responsibilities to companions who were capable of carrying and reading letters, and who understood the situation of the people or congregation to which they were sent. At the very least, these individuals would have been proficient readers. Moreover, the scribes whom Paul used, like Tertius, were likely semi-professional or professional scribes. It would be impractical to delegate the critical task of recording a significant text like the book of Romans to an unskilled scribe. So, what qualifications would Tertius need to transcribe the Book of Romans?

An average colleague of Paul’s would likely have been a proficient reader but probably had limited writing skills. Paul would have chosen companions whose abilities enabled them to fulfill their roles effectively. Tertius would have been an exception, most likely a professional scribe. His skills would have included binding sheets into a roll or stitching pages into a codex, concocting an appropriate mixture of soot and gum to create ink, and using a knife to craft his own reed pen. A professional scribe would also draw lines on the paper, often pricking small holes down each side and using a straight edge and a lead disk to create evenly spaced lines across the sheet. If Tertius did not have training as a document copyist, he might have made minor errors because his focus would have been on the meaning of what he was writing, rather than the exact words, a common trait of the unconscious mind.

Some textual scholars argue that textual criticism acknowledges that even original authors may have revised their work and that these works may have gone through several editions. They also suggest that when referring to the “original text,” they mean the ‘published’ text, i.e., the text in its final edited form as it was disseminated in the Christian community.

Others may swing to the opposite extreme, unrealistically asserting, “We believe that the New Testament authors themselves wrote or dictated a one-time, single, and only version of their texts, unedited and uncorrected under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.”

The Role of Amanuenses in Scripture Writing

When considering the composition of the book of Romans, it’s insightful to reflect on Paul’s method of dictating his letter to Tertius. Given Tertius was not divinely inspired and being human, prone to error, the question arises: Could he transcribe Paul’s words flawlessly over 7,000 words without error? This leads us to ponder whether the involvement of human imperfection, such as Paul correcting a scribal mistake, diminishes the role of the Holy Spirit in the inspiration process. This contemplation does not necessarily lead to a slippery slope but invites a deeper understanding of the divine-human cooperation in Scripture’s composition. As Peter instructs in 1 Peter 3:15, we must be prepared to address these queries, suggesting a nuanced perspective on the inspired text’s transmission.

Clarifying Paul’s Editorial Oversight

It’s reasonable to consider that Paul, overseeing Tertius’s transcription, might correct or clarify the text as needed without altering the original message inspired by the Holy Spirit. The process likely involved Paul dictating, with Tertius either directly transcribing or possibly using ancient shorthand methods, followed by a joint review for accuracy. This collaboration ensures the final document, though corrected as necessary, remained a faithful single record of Paul’s inspired message.

Tertius’s Transcription Methods

Robert H. Mounce[3] sheds light on the possible approaches Tertius might have employed in transcribing Romans. The spectrum ranges from direct longhand transcription to a more autonomous formulation of Paul’s dictated ideas. While direct transcription might seem daunting, it wasn’t beyond the realm of possibility, considering the skill level of a professional scribe like Tertius. The potential use of ancient shorthand (tachygraphy) could have facilitated an accurate initial capture of Paul’s words, subsequently transcribed into longhand for review. This process mirrors modern court reporting, suggesting that ancient shorthand might possess the capability to accurately record speech, including its nuances and interruptions.

The Integrity of Scriptural Authorship

Mounce’s speculation about Tertius’s independence in formulating the letter diverges from the traditional view of scriptural authorship. The primary authors of the New Testament, such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Peter, Jude, James, and Paul, were chosen by God to convey His message, not their scribes like Tertius or Silvanus. This distinction underscores that the divine message was dictated by the authors, inspired by the Holy Spirit, and not crafted by the scribes’ discretion. The exact method of transcription, whether shorthand or longhand, remains uncertain. However, it is clear that the scribes’ role was to faithfully record the inspired words of the biblical authors, ensuring the integrity of the divine message transmitted through Scripture.

The Nature of Biblical Inspiration

The concept of inspiration in the Bible is unique and multifaceted. While the process of verbal plenary inspiration affirms that every word in Scripture is God-breathed, it’s important to understand that the Almighty did not typically dictate the Scriptures word-for-word as if the authors were mere recording devices. The Apostle Paul, for instance, highlights that God communicated with His servants in various ways before the coming of Christ (Hebrews 1:1-2). A notable exception is the Ten Commandments, where God directly provided the content in written form, facilitating Moses’s task of transcribing these commandments onto scrolls (Exodus 31:18; Deuteronomy 10:1-5). In other instances, divine messages were delivered verbally for the prophets to record, contributing to the inerrant and inspired Scriptures we have today (1 Kings 22:14; Jeremiah 1:7, 2:1, 11:1-5; Ezekiel 3:4, 11:5).

Paul’s Role in the Transcription Process

Paul’s personal signature at the end of his letters, as mentioned in 2 Thessalonians 3:17, served as his seal of approval, akin to a supervisor signing off on a letter drafted by a secretary. This practice implies that Paul meticulously reviewed each letter, making corrections as necessary, which suggests that the scribe, or amanuensis, wasn’t inspired in the same way Paul was. If the scribe had been inspired, there would have been no need for such revisions. This detail underscores the dynamic partnership between Paul and his scribes, such as Tertius, who were not just professional assistants but also fellow laborers in the ministry.

The Distinction between Author and Scribe

The relationship between biblical authors and their scribes was marked by a clear division of roles. While the scribes played a critical role in the physical writing process, the inspiration and content came exclusively from the authors themselves, guided by the Holy Spirit. This arrangement ensured that the Scriptures remained free of human error in their original autographs, reflecting the true word of God as intended. Instances of direct divine dictation, such as the laws given to Moses or messages entrusted to the prophets, highlight the varied means by which God communicated His will to His people.

Concluding Thoughts on Scriptural Integrity

Understanding the distinction between the inspired authors of the Bible and their scribes clarifies the integrity of the scriptural texts. The Holy Spirit inspired figures like Paul to convey God’s message, with scribes serving as instrumental in transcribing these revelations. This process, while involving human hands in the transcription, remained under the sovereign oversight of God, ensuring that His word was accurately and faithfully recorded for posterity. The collaborative effort between author and scribe, underpinned by divine inspiration, underscores the profound respect and reverence afforded to the sacred texts, preserving their authenticity and authority throughout generations.

Jeremiah 36:4 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)

⁴ Then Jeremiah called Baruch the son of Neriah, and Baruch wrote on a scroll at the dictation of Jeremiah all the words of Jehovah that he had spoken to him. (Bold mine)

The Role of Scribes and Carriers in the Transmission of Scripture

Ensuring the Inerrancy of Scripture

When considering the involvement of scribes like Tertius in the transcription of Paul’s letters or Baruch in writing down Jeremiah’s prophecies, it’s crucial to understand this did not compromise the authority or inerrancy of Scripture. The divine inspiration guiding Paul was conveyed through his dictation, with Tertius acting as a recorder, meticulously capturing Paul’s inspired words. Despite the likelihood of minor transcription errors due to the human element and the challenging conditions of writing in ancient times, any such errors were rectified. Paul, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, would review and correct the text in collaboration with Tertius, ensuring the final manuscript remained faithful to the inspired message.

The Significance of the Carrier

The role of individuals responsible for delivering Paul’s epistles, such as Phoebe, extended beyond mere physical transportation. These carriers, selected from among Paul’s reliable and capable associates, were entrusted not only with the safekeeping of the letters but also with a deep understanding of their content. Given the interactive nature of Paul’s correspondence with early Christian communities, carriers like Phoebe likely had comprehensive briefings from Paul. This preparation enabled them to address any immediate questions or clarify misunderstandings about the letter’s contents upon its delivery. This meticulous approach underscores the importance placed on ensuring the intended message was accurately conveyed and understood, highlighting the carriers’ integral role in the apostolic ministry.

The process of writing, preserving, and delivering the New Testament scriptures involved a collaborative effort between the inspired apostles, their scribes, and the trusted carriers. This system, underpinned by divine guidance, safeguarded the accuracy and authority of the scriptures as they were transmitted to early Christian communities. The meticulous care taken in every step of this process reflects the profound reverence for the Word of God and the commitment to maintaining its inerrancy and integrity throughout the ages.

From Inspiration to Circulation: The Journey of New Testament Manuscripts

In the development of the New Testament canon, the “published” version of a manuscript represents the authoritative document sanctioned for distribution among the burgeoning Christian congregations. This authorized version, meticulously transcribed by scribes, was paramount for ensuring the teachings’ faithful replication across diverse communities. Although apostolic figures like Paul and Peter enlisted the assistance of secretaries for the preliminary drafting, the ultimate responsibility for the message’s truthfulness and adherence to divine inspiration rested with the originating apostle or writer, affirming the conviction that these writings were guided by the Holy Spirit.

The journey of early Christian manuscripts from their inception to their adoption by faith communities underscores a meticulous and collaborative effort. The participation of individuals such as Silvanus highlights this collective endeavor, wherein adept contributors played vital roles in the articulation, preservation, and propagation of apostolic doctrines. Despite the scribes’ role in the physical act of writing, the scriptural authority and inerrancy were preserved through the apostolic authors’ oversight and direct contribution.

As these documents were replicated and shared, early Christian leaders were vigilant in ensuring the fidelity of the circulated texts to the original apostolic testimony. This diligence extended beyond mere transcription to defining the corpus of authoritative scripture for the faith community. The evolution from oral tradition to written scripture marked a crucial phase in early Christianity, facilitating the gospel’s preservation and broad dissemination.

The differentiation between the autograph (original document) and the published text is crucial for comprehending the textual heritage of the New Testament. While the autograph denotes the initial composition, the published text is the vetted version prepared for public consumption and teaching, following a meticulous review and endorsement by the author. This vetted version became the template for subsequent transcriptions, executed with varying precision by scribes throughout the Christian domain.

The process leading to the New Testament writings’ publication entailed several stages, from the original drafting or dictation to the widespread distribution of texts among Christian assemblies. This procedure was instrumental in safeguarding, authenticating, and disseminating the accounts and teachings of Jesus Christ and his apostles. Through the combined efforts of authors, secretaries, and scribes, Christianity’s foundational documents were established, fostering the early Church’s expansion and unity.

[1] THE READING CULTURE OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY: The Production, Publication, Circulation, and Use of Books in the Early Christian Church (2019) by Edward D. Andrews.

[2] An Introduction to the Greek New Testament, Produced at Tyndale House, Cambridge, Crossway.

[3] Robert H. Mounce, Romans, vol. 27, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995), 22.

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