The Issue Begins With the Authority of Scripture

The central problem with the Historical-Critical Method is not that it studies history, language, literary form, sources, culture, or ancient customs, because all of those matters can contribute to responsible biblical interpretation when they remain subordinate to the inspired text. The problem arises when the interpreter approaches Scripture as though its origin, authority, truthfulness, authorship, and supernatural claims must first pass judgment before autonomous human reason. Scripture presents the opposite order, declaring that “all Scripture is inspired by God” in 2 Timothy 3:16 and explaining in 2 Peter 1:20-21 that prophecy did not originate in the human will but came as men spoke from God while moved by the Holy Spirit. Paul likewise commended believers because they accepted the apostolic message, not as merely the word of men, but as the Word of God, according to 1 Thessalonians 2:13. Therefore, biblical interpretation cannot begin by treating divine revelation as though it were religious literature whose claims to inspiration are merely one hypothesis among several competing explanations. Jesus treated Scripture as authoritative and incapable of being nullified, as seen in John 10:35, and He based arguments on what had actually been written, as seen in Matthew 22:31-32 and Matthew 22:43-45. The faithful interpreter consequently begins with the inspired words, investigates their grammar, historical setting, literary form, and authorial intention, and asks what the Spirit-inspired writer intended his original audience to understand. Historical criticism reverses that relationship whenever human reconstruction becomes the judge of the inspired text, and in doing so it turns the Word of God into a word whose meaning, authority, authenticity, and even existence depend upon the conclusions of modern critics.

The Philosophical Roots of the Historical-Critical Method

The Historical-Critical Method developed within an intellectual environment profoundly influenced by rationalism, the Enlightenment, secular humanism, and later forms of philosophical skepticism that increasingly treated supernatural revelation as unacceptable within serious historical explanation. This background matters because no method of interpretation is philosophically neutral when it begins with assumptions about what can and cannot occur in history. If an interpreter decides before examining the evidence that predictive prophecy cannot occur, that miracles cannot occur, that God cannot reveal information to human writers, or that Scripture cannot be uniquely inspired, the resulting conclusions have already been directed by the interpreter’s worldview. Historical criticism therefore became more than the innocent investigation of dates, places, languages, customs, and political circumstances; it frequently became an ideological framework within which the Bible was required to be explained primarily through natural human development. This difference is decisive because Scripture repeatedly presents Jehovah as acting within history, revealing His will, directing His servants, foretelling future events, and accomplishing works that cannot be reduced to ordinary human causation, as seen in Exodus 3:1-15, Isaiah 46:9-10, Daniel 2:27-28, and Acts 2:22-24. Peter explicitly rejected the claim that the apostolic message rested upon “cleverly devised myths,” appealing instead to eyewitness testimony in 2 Peter 1:16, and Luke likewise grounded his Gospel in careful investigation and testimony from those who had firsthand knowledge, according to Luke 1:1-4. A method that rules the supernatural inadmissible before examining the biblical evidence has not reached skepticism through historical research; it has carried skepticism into historical research. Once that philosophical restriction governs interpretation, miracles become legends, fulfilled prophecy becomes late composition, apostolic testimony becomes community tradition, and divine revelation becomes religious evolution. The fundamental corruption therefore occurs before the critic analyzes a single Hebrew verb or Greek clause, because the Bible has already been repositioned from revelation that must be understood to human testimony that must be reconstructed and corrected.

Source Criticism and the Fragmentation of the Pentateuch

Source criticism illustrates how historical-critical assumptions can replace the actual document with hypothetical documents that no manuscript has preserved and no biblical writer identifies. The most famous Old Testament example is the Documentary Hypothesis associated especially with Julius Wellhausen, which divided the Pentateuch among supposed J, E, D, and P sources and arranged those sources according to an evolutionary reconstruction of Israelite religion. Differences in divine names, vocabulary, subject matter, legal material, repetition, and literary emphasis were treated as evidence that Genesis through Deuteronomy arose from different writers and later editors rather than from the Mosaic foundation affirmed within Scripture. Yet differences of vocabulary do not establish different authors, because a competent writer naturally varies terminology according to subject, setting, emphasis, audience, and purpose, while repetition can serve literary, historical, theological, or instructional purposes without implying multiple documents. The biblical testimony repeatedly associates Moses with the Law, as Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” in Mark 12:26, speaks of what “Moses commanded” in Matthew 8:4, and tells His opponents in John 5:46-47 that Moses wrote concerning Him. Luke 24:44 similarly refers to the Law of Moses, while Romans 10:5 explicitly introduces a statement of the Law with Moses as the one who writes, making the canonical testimony incompatible with a reconstruction that transforms Moses into little more than a traditional name attached to centuries of anonymous literary development. The source critic may claim to have discovered older literary layers beneath the present text, but the sources themselves remain theoretical reconstructions generated from perceived patterns within the very document whose testimony is being challenged. When hypothetical documents receive greater authority than the extant Pentateuch, the interpreter is no longer explaining the text that exists but constructing an unseen history behind the text and then using that reconstruction to reinterpret the text before him. The result is methodological inversion: instead of allowing Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy to provide evidence concerning their own character and historical setting, a speculative theory becomes the controlling framework through which their claims must be filtered.

Source Criticism and the Hypothetical Reconstruction of the Gospels

The same tendency appears in New Testament source criticism, particularly in attempts to explain the similarities among Matthew, Mark, and Luke through elaborate theories of literary dependence. The Two-Source Theory commonly proposes that Mark was written first and that Matthew and Luke independently used Mark together with a second hypothetical source called Q, while more elaborate theories have added supposed materials labeled M and L. Q is especially revealing because no manuscript of Q has been discovered, no ancient copy is known, and the theory reconstructs its alleged contents primarily by isolating material shared by Matthew and Luke but absent from Mark. The similarities among the Synoptic Gospels are real, but similarity does not by itself establish the existence of an otherwise unattested document, nor does it prove that one inspired evangelist copied another according to the precise dependency model preferred by modern criticism. Jesus taught publicly and repeatedly, the apostles heard many of the same teachings, Christian preaching naturally preserved stable accounts of His words and deeds, and Jesus specifically promised His apostolic followers that the Holy Spirit would bring His teachings to their remembrance in John 14:26. Luke 1:1-4 further demonstrates that careful historical research and the use of testimony were fully compatible with inspiration, because Luke investigated matters accurately while producing an inspired account rather than functioning as a mechanical secretary detached from historical evidence. Source criticism becomes corrupting when a hypothetical literary genealogy is treated as more certain than the canonical Gospels themselves and when differences among the evangelists are explained as editorial alteration rather than the legitimate selectivity of independent authors writing for particular purposes. Matthew can emphasize one detail, Mark another, and Luke another without contradiction, just as several truthful witnesses can describe the same historical event from different perspectives while remaining accurate. The student of Scripture should therefore analyze verbal agreements and differences where useful, but he should refuse to transform literary similarities into an imaginary document whose reconstructed existence then becomes a tool for questioning the integrity, independence, or inspiration of the inspired Gospel accounts.

Form Criticism and the Removal of the Biblical Text From History

Form criticism moved beyond proposed written sources by dividing biblical material, especially Gospel material, into smaller units and attempting to reconstruct the social settings in which those units supposedly circulated before being placed into written form. Classification by literary form is not itself objectionable, because Scripture actually contains narrative, law, poetry, proverb, parable, prophecy, genealogy, epistle, apocalyptic discourse, and other recognizable forms that must be interpreted according to their literary characteristics. The corruption occurs when classification becomes a means of removing a saying or event from its inspired literary and historical context and placing it within a hypothetical developmental history created by the critic. Classical form-critical approaches often assumed that stories and sayings circulated anonymously within Christian communities and were reshaped according to changing community needs before being incorporated into the Gospels. That assumption permits the critic to ask not merely what Matthew, Mark, or Luke wrote, but whether Jesus actually performed a recorded action, spoke a recorded saying, or whether the early Christian community created or modified the material. Such a procedure directly conflicts with the apostolic emphasis on historical testimony, because 1 John 1:1-3 emphasizes what the witnesses heard, saw, observed, and handled, while Acts 10:39-41 presents the apostles as witnesses to Jesus’ deeds, death, and resurrection. Peter likewise anchors Christian proclamation in eyewitness experience in 2 Peter 1:16, and Paul makes the historical resurrection indispensable to Christianity in 1 Corinthians 15:14-17 rather than treating resurrection language as a community-created religious form. Form criticism therefore passes beyond legitimate genre analysis when it treats the literary form as evidence that the historical event behind it has been altered, embellished, detached from its context, or generated by an anonymous community. The historical-grammatical interpreter recognizes literary forms, but he studies those forms within the final inspired context in which the biblical author actually placed them, rather than inventing a prehistory of the passage and then allowing that reconstruction to override the text.

Tradition Criticism and the Search for a Gospel Behind the Gospels

Tradition criticism extends the same historical-critical impulse by attempting to trace the origin, transmission, alteration, and development of sayings, stories, theological concepts, and narrative units before they reached their present written form. Its characteristic procedure is to work backward from the inspired text toward an alleged earlier form of the tradition, peeling away what the critic identifies as later additions, community expansions, theological modifications, or contextual adaptations. This approach frequently employs “criteria of authenticity” designed to determine which Gospel sayings genuinely originated with Jesus and which supposedly arose within early Christian communities. The difficulty is fundamental: the critic possesses the canonical text but does not possess the alleged earlier stages through which the tradition supposedly passed, so the reconstruction depends heavily upon assumptions about what early Christians would have remembered, altered, created, emphasized, or forgotten. Once the critic grants himself authority to divide authentic words of Jesus from alleged community creations, the canonical Gospel is no longer functioning as the primary historical witness, because an academic reconstruction has become a canon behind the canon. Yet Jesus commissioned identifiable witnesses, not anonymous community creativity, as Acts 1:8 shows, and the apostles repeatedly grounded proclamation in what had occurred publicly and historically, as seen in Acts 2:22-32 and Acts 3:13-15. Paul could remind the Corinthians of a resurrection tradition involving named and numerous witnesses in 1 Corinthians 15:3-8, demonstrating concern for historical continuity rather than an uncontrolled process in which communities freely manufactured foundational Christian claims. Tradition undoubtedly existed in the ordinary sense that teachings were communicated and remembered before and alongside written documents, but the existence of transmission does not establish the historical-critical claim that the material underwent extensive anonymous theological development. The responsible interpreter therefore studies how biblical teaching was communicated without pretending that a reconstructed oral stage possesses greater historical authority than the inspired written form that Jehovah preserved for His people.

Redaction Criticism and the Recasting of Inspired Authors as Theological Editors

Redaction criticism turns attention from small traditional units to the supposed editorial activity of the biblical writers, asking how an evangelist or later redactor shaped inherited sources to advance particular theological purposes. Recognizing that Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John selected, arranged, and emphasized material differently is entirely legitimate, because inspiration did not erase the vocabulary, personality, research, interests, or literary purpose of the human writer. John explicitly explains that he selected signs of Jesus for a stated purpose in John 20:30-31, and Luke openly declares his intention to write an orderly account for Theophilus in Luke 1:1-4. Redaction criticism becomes destructive when legitimate authorial selection is converted into evidence that an evangelist freely altered historical material, placed invented teachings on Jesus’ lips, reshaped events for theological effect, or manipulated inherited traditions to meet the needs of a later community. The differences among Matthew 8:23-27, Mark 4:35-41, and Luke 8:22-25 in recounting Jesus’ calming of the storm do not require editorial fabrication, because separate accurate accounts can emphasize different details of the same event without changing its historical truth. Likewise, the feeding of the five thousand appears in Matthew 14:13-21, Mark 6:30-44, Luke 9:10-17, and John 6:1-14 with differences of selection and detail that are precisely what one expects from several truthful accounts rather than evidence that inspired writers invented theology through editorial manipulation. Inspiration includes genuine human authorship while guaranteeing that what those authors wrote as Scripture communicates what God intended, as 2 Timothy 3:16 and 2 Peter 1:20-21 establish. The redaction critic therefore crosses the boundary from observation to speculation when he moves from “Matthew emphasizes this feature” to “Matthew created or altered this feature for his theological agenda” without historical evidence establishing such fabrication. Proper exegesis studies each writer’s vocabulary, arrangement, emphasis, audience, and stated purpose while refusing to reinterpret inspired selectivity as permission to reconstruct the evangelists as unreliable theological editors.

Literary, Rhetorical, and Narrative Criticism When Form Replaces Meaning

Literary, rhetorical, and narrative observations can identify genuine features of biblical writing, but the historical-critical family of approaches corrupts these observations when literary technique becomes more important than historical reference, theological content, and authorial intention. A student should certainly notice parallelism in Hebrew poetry, argumentation in Paul’s letters, repetition in narrative, irony, questions, contrasts, inclusions, characterization, discourse structure, and other features actually present in the text. The danger begins when the interpreter treats Scripture primarily as literary artistry and starts explaining an event as a narrative device, a statement as rhetorical strategy, or a theological declaration as merely a technique designed to persuade an audience. Luke’s Gospel itself prevents such reduction because Luke 1:1-4 states that his purpose was connected with accurately investigated events and certainty concerning what Theophilus had been taught, not merely with producing an aesthetically effective narrative. Likewise, the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7 contains rhetorical structure, repetition, contrast, memorable imagery, and carefully arranged instruction, but those literary characteristics serve Jesus’ teaching rather than turning His teaching into rhetoric detached from objective truth. Paul employed argument, questions, analogy, contrast, quotation, and carefully structured reasoning, yet Romans 1:16-17 presents the gospel as divine truth and power rather than a persuasive literary construction whose meaning exists primarily in rhetorical effect. Narrative analysis can help a reader follow plot, setting, characters, and movement, but 1 Samuel 17 must first be treated as an inspired historical account within Israel’s history rather than as a self-contained hero story whose theological significance is generated by literary technique. The interpretive question must always move from observable literary features toward what the inspired author communicated through those features, never from a modern literary theory toward an alternative meaning imposed upon the text. When form controls content, the critic no longer allows the Bible to use literary artistry in communicating truth but instead uses literary categories to convert revealed truth into human composition.

Structuralism, Poststructuralism, and Reader-Controlled Meaning

Structuralism and poststructuralism move the corruption still further because they can detach meaning from the concrete intention of the biblical writer and relocate interpretive authority within impersonal structures, language systems, cultural forces, or the reader himself. Structuralism seeks underlying patterns that supposedly govern texts, but when those patterns become controlling interpretive grids, the actual words, historical circumstances, and distinctive intentions of individual biblical authors can be subordinated to structures imported from modern literary theory. Poststructuralism goes further by destabilizing fixed meaning and emphasizing the fluidity of language, thereby weakening the fundamental assumption that an author can communicate determinate truth through intelligible words. Reader-response criticism completes that movement by assigning decisive significance to the reader’s experience, social location, emotional reaction, or interpretive community, so that meaning increasingly becomes what the text produces in the reader rather than what the author intended to communicate. Scripture itself assumes meaningful communication, because Paul expected the Corinthians to understand what he wrote in 2 Corinthians 1:13, Luke wrote so that Theophilus could possess certainty in Luke 1:4, and John wrote so that readers could know the purpose of the signs recorded concerning Jesus in John 20:30-31. Nehemiah 8:8 likewise provides an important pattern in which the written Law was read and its sense was explained so that the people could understand what was written, demonstrating that interpretation seeks comprehension of an existing message rather than creation of a new one. Personal application legitimately differs according to circumstances, but the meaning that governs application cannot change every time a different reader encounters the passage, because otherwise commands, promises, historical assertions, warnings, and doctrines lose stable content. A reader may react differently to Romans 3:23, but his reaction does not alter Paul’s assertion concerning universal human sinfulness, just as a modern reader’s political or cultural preferences cannot redefine the apostle’s intended argument. Turning the reader into the final source of meaning is therefore one of the clearest ways of turning the Word of God into the word of man, because the inspired author’s communication becomes subordinate to the interpreter’s preferred experience or conceptual framework.

Canonical Criticism and the Danger of Reading Later Meaning Into Earlier Texts

Canonical criticism appears at first to correct some historical-critical fragmentation because it emphasizes the final form of Scripture, yet it also becomes problematic when later canonical arrangement or later community interpretation is allowed to control meanings that the original author never communicated. The final canonical form is unquestionably important because Christians read complete inspired books within the complete collection of Scripture, and later inspired revelation can clarify matters that earlier revelation left undeveloped. Nevertheless, each passage still possessed meaning when its author wrote it, and later revelation does not authorize interpreters to place foreign meanings into earlier texts that their original language and historical context cannot sustain. The historical-grammatical principle therefore begins with what Hosea meant in Hosea, what Isaiah meant in Isaiah, what Matthew meant in Matthew, and what Paul meant in Romans before considering how those truths relate to the rest of inspired Scripture. Jesus and the apostles could authoritatively explain prior revelation under divine inspiration, but modern interpreters possess no comparable authority to invent allegories, hidden meanings, or theological associations merely because two passages occur within the same canon. This is why the immediate literary and historical context must control interpretation before broader canonical relationships are developed, as demonstrated by Paul’s command in 2 Timothy 2:15 to handle the Word of truth accurately. Scripture interprets Scripture because its teachings are harmonious, but genuine harmony is discovered by accurately understanding the individual texts rather than homogenizing their distinctive historical settings and authorial purposes. Canonical criticism therefore becomes another form of human control when the final arrangement of books, later theological reception, or ecclesiastical tradition displaces the meaning established by grammar, context, and the inspired writer’s intention. Faithful canonical reading honors the unity of Scripture precisely by refusing to erase the historical and grammatical integrity of the individual inspired documents from which that unity is formed.

Historical Skepticism Toward Miracles and Predictive Prophecy

One of the most consequential features of historical-critical interpretation is its tendency to evaluate miraculous events and predictive prophecy according to assumptions that restrict what can count as historical explanation. If a critic assumes that genuine prediction of distant events is impossible, a biblical book containing accurate prophecy must be dated after the predicted events, regardless of the book’s own claims or the broader historical evidence. This reasoning has been especially influential in critical treatments of Daniel, where detailed prophecy has often been used not as evidence of divine revelation but as a reason to move composition into the Maccabean period. Yet Jesus explicitly refers to “Daniel the prophet” in Matthew 24:15, and the book itself consistently presents Daniel as a historical servant of Jehovah receiving revelations concerning events beyond his own immediate circumstances. Isaiah 46:9-10 presents Jehovah’s ability to declare future developments as a distinguishing expression of His divine knowledge, while 2 Peter 1:20-21 grounds biblical prophecy in divine rather than merely human origin. The same conflict appears with miracles, because the resurrection of Jesus cannot be reduced to the religious experience of a community without destroying the historical claim upon which apostolic Christianity rests. Paul states in 1 Corinthians 15:14-17 that if Christ was not raised, Christian proclamation and faith collapse, demonstrating that the resurrection is not an expendable mythological expression whose theological value can survive the denial of its historical occurrence. Acts 2:22-24 similarly connects Jesus’ public mighty works, death, and resurrection within real history, while the Gospel narratives repeatedly locate His ministry among identifiable rulers, cities, disciples, opponents, customs, and geographical locations. Historical investigation is therefore welcome, but a methodology that excludes divine action in advance is not neutral historical inquiry; it is philosophical naturalism controlling which historical conclusions are permitted before the evidence has been heard.

Textual Criticism Must Not Be Confused With Historical Criticism

The rejection of the Historical-Critical Method must never be confused with a rejection of sound textual criticism, because the two disciplines ask fundamentally different questions and operate with different kinds of evidence. Textual criticism compares Hebrew and Greek manuscripts, ancient versions, scribal patterns, and variant readings in order to recover as closely as possible the wording of the original inspired documents. Historical criticism, by contrast, frequently seeks hypothetical literary sources, stages of tradition, redactors, community developments, alternative authors, revised dates, and reconstructed historical circumstances behind the extant text. The existence of manuscript variants is an observable fact supported by actual documentary evidence, whereas J, E, Q, hypothetical oral layers, invented redactors, and reconstructed community settings often exist only as scholarly proposals inferred from literary patterns. Because Jehovah inspired the original words, identifying later scribal additions, omissions, substitutions, transpositions, or harmonizations protects rather than diminishes the authority of Scripture, as the principle against adding to God’s words in Proverbs 30:5-6 makes clear. Sound textual criticism therefore seeks the text, while historical-critical reconstruction can move away from the text by creating an imagined prehistory that gains interpretive authority over the document actually preserved. This distinction is especially important for Bible students because the word “critical” can misleadingly suggest that all forms of criticism belong to one philosophical system, when manuscript comparison and speculative source reconstruction are methodologically different enterprises. A responsible Christian can examine Codex Leningradensis, the Aleppo Codex, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Greek papyri, major uncials, ancient versions, and scribal habits without accepting philosophical naturalism, anonymous community fabrication, or denial of traditional biblical authorship. The task is to recover and understand what was written, not to replace the inspired wording with a theoretical history whose components exist primarily in the critic’s reconstruction.

The Historical-Grammatical Method Respects Both Divine and Human Authorship

The historical-grammatical method provides the proper alternative because it takes seriously both dimensions Scripture itself affirms: Jehovah communicated His revelation through genuine human writers who used intelligible human languages within real historical circumstances. Inspiration did not eliminate Moses’ vocabulary, David’s poetic skill, Luke’s historical research, Paul’s reasoning, or John’s distinctive style, yet these human features do not reduce Scripture to merely human religious reflection. The interpreter therefore studies Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek grammar; syntax; lexical meaning; idioms; literary genre; historical circumstances; geography; customs; political conditions; immediate context; book context; and the relationship of the passage to the rest of Scripture. These tools are servants of the text rather than judges over it, because their purpose is to uncover what the inspired author communicated rather than to reconstruct a different document, writer, date, event, or theology behind what he actually wrote. Ezra provides an instructive model in Nehemiah 8:8, where the Law was read and explained so that its meaning could be understood, showing that biblical instruction requires careful explanation of an already authoritative text. Jesus repeatedly asked what was written, what people had read, and how Scripture should be understood, as seen in Matthew 12:3-5, Matthew 19:4-6, Matthew 21:16, and Luke 10:26, demonstrating His expectation that authoritative written revelation possesses ascertainable meaning. Paul’s command in 2 Timothy 2:15 requires accurate handling of the Word of truth, while Acts 17:11 commends those who carefully examined the Scriptures to determine whether apostolic teaching corresponded with what God had already revealed. The Holy Spirit guides Christians today through the Spirit-inspired Word He caused to be written, so faithful interpretation does not depend upon private revelation, mystical impressions, or an academic elite possessing hidden access to hypothetical stages behind Scripture. Historical-grammatical interpretation consequently protects the proper relationship between interpreter and text: the student investigates diligently, reasons carefully, examines evidence honestly, and submits his conclusions to what the inspired words actually communicate.

How the Christian Should Study the Bible Without Turning It Into Man’s Word

A Christian studying the Bible should begin with the text itself and resist the temptation to begin with a theory about sources, communities, editors, hidden structures, later theological agendas, or meanings generated by modern readers. He should first establish the literary boundaries of the passage, identify the speaker or writer and intended audience, examine the immediate context, determine the ordinary meaning of the words according to their historical usage, observe grammar and syntax, recognize the literary form, and place the passage within its historical circumstances. He should then compare related passages without forcing one text to say what another text says, because genuine biblical harmony preserves rather than erases the distinctive meaning of each inspired writer. Difficulties should be investigated patiently and honestly rather than transformed into immediate evidence of contradiction, composite authorship, invented tradition, or historical error, since incomplete knowledge of ancient chronology, culture, geography, language, and textual transmission frequently explains difficulties that initially appear formidable. Proverbs 18:13 warns against answering before hearing a matter, and the same principle applies to biblical interpretation: the interpreter must gather the relevant textual and historical evidence before declaring that an inspired writer was mistaken or that a traditional understanding must be abandoned. The Christian should also distinguish observed evidence from reconstructed theory, recognizing the vast difference between saying that two passages use similar vocabulary and asserting that both therefore copied an otherwise unknown source, or between observing narrative differences and claiming that an evangelist invented material for theological purposes. Above all, he must remember that interpretation is not the creation of meaning but the disciplined recovery of meaning, because God communicated through words, sentences, literary forms, and historical acts intended to be understood by His people. Psalm 119:105 presents God’s Word as illumination for one’s path, John 17:17 identifies God’s Word with truth, and Hebrews 4:12 describes that Word as living and active, none of which permits the interpreter to reduce Scripture to the evolving religious consciousness of ancient communities. When the Bible student allows grammar, context, history, authorial intent, and the unity of inspired revelation to govern his study, he hears the biblical writers on their own terms rather than hearing modern critics speaking through them, and he preserves the essential distinction between receiving the Word of God and reconstructing the word of man.

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