Symmachus (σ), an early Jewish translator of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, occupies an important place in the history of Old Testament textual transmission. His translation is known to us today largely through fragments preserved in Origen’s Hexapla and quotations by Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius. Symmachus was active at the close of the first century C.E., a period when Jewish communities were consolidating their scriptural traditions in response to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. and the subsequent redefinition of Jewish identity. While Aquila and Theodotion are often discussed more prominently, Symmachus represents a significant middle ground between overly literalistic renderings of the Hebrew text and freer paraphrastic tendencies. His work demonstrates a refined balance: a faithful adherence to the Hebrew Vorlage, combined with stylistic sensitivity to the idiomatic patterns of the Greek language.

Historical Background of Symmachus

Symmachus’ origins are noted in patristic sources, with Epiphanius stating that he was a Samaritan who later converted to Judaism. This background is significant because Samaritans had their own distinct Pentateuchal textual tradition, the Samaritan Pentateuch, which differed from the Hebrew Masoretic Text in over 6,000 places. While Symmachus’ surviving translation fragments do not show clear dependence on the Samaritan Pentateuch, his exposure to textual plurality from an early stage may have influenced his approach. His conversion to Judaism and subsequent training in Hebrew and Greek placed him in a unique position to serve as a mediator between textual fidelity and linguistic elegance.

Scholarly tradition suggests that Symmachus was influenced by the work of Aquila, who had produced a rigidly literal translation around the same period. Aquila’s rendering was so committed to one-to-one correspondence between Hebrew and Greek that it frequently resulted in awkward, unidiomatic Greek, often sacrificing readability for the sake of precision. Symmachus, by contrast, sought to render the Hebrew text into polished Greek prose that preserved meaning without wooden literalism. This approach indicates both his deep respect for the Hebrew source text and his sensitivity to the needs of Greek-speaking Jewish and Christian readers.

Symmachus in the Context of the Hexapla

Our knowledge of Symmachus’ translation primarily comes through Origen’s monumental Hexapla, a six-columned work created in the early third century C.E. The Hexapla presented the Hebrew text, a Hebrew transliteration into Greek characters, and four Greek translations: Aquila, Symmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion. Origen designed this project to compare textual traditions and restore accuracy to the Septuagint, which had undergone significant corruption in its transmission.

In this arrangement, Symmachus’ translation held an important place. Where Aquila’s literalness made the text cumbersome, Symmachus’ smoother renderings demonstrated the possibility of accuracy and clarity coexisting. His column allowed scholars to compare his translation with both the Hebrew Vorlage and other Greek translations, revealing how idiomatic Greek expression could still faithfully communicate the Hebrew sense. Jerome, who drew heavily upon Symmachus in his own translations and commentaries, particularly praised him for his stylistic clarity.

Linguistic and Translational Character of Symmachus

Symmachus’ translation philosophy can be described as idiomatic fidelity. He did not aim for word-for-word reproduction but rather for thought-for-thought precision expressed in natural Greek. His treatment of Hebrew idioms illustrates this well. Whereas Aquila might translate an idiomatic Hebrew expression with its exact lexical equivalent, even when this produced unintelligible Greek, Symmachus adapted the idiom into a Greek equivalent that carried the same meaning.

For example, Hebrew often employs repetitive constructions for emphasis or employs Semitic figures of speech that do not translate smoothly into Greek. Symmachus consistently sought functional equivalence by recasting such expressions in natural Greek prose. At the same time, he avoided the excesses of paraphrase found in some other translations, thereby maintaining the authority of the Hebrew Vorlage.

Another notable feature of Symmachus is his lexical versatility. Unlike Aquila, who often used the same Greek word for each occurrence of a given Hebrew term, Symmachus varied his vocabulary depending on context. This demonstrates his awareness that Hebrew words could have semantic ranges and that their meanings were best captured by flexible rendering rather than mechanical uniformity. Such practice gave his translation a level of sophistication that appealed to educated readers who valued style alongside accuracy.

Symmachus and His Relation to the Hebrew Vorlage

Although Symmachus was clearly influenced by Aquila, his translation was not merely a revision of Aquila’s work. Instead, it reflects an independent engagement with the Hebrew text. The fragments of his translation that survive align closely with the Hebrew Masoretic tradition, further affirming the textual stability of the Hebrew Scriptures by the late first century C.E. While there are occasional divergences, these often reflect differences in interpretation rather than underlying textual variants.

This makes Symmachus valuable for textual criticism of the Old Testament. By comparing his translation with those of Aquila, Theodotion, and the Septuagint, scholars can better determine where variations stem from differing Hebrew Vorlagen and where they are the result of translational philosophy. In most cases, Symmachus strengthens the reliability of the Masoretic tradition by confirming its readings, even as he expresses them in smoother Greek.

Use and Reception of Symmachus’ Translation

Although Symmachus’ version never reached the widespread use of the Septuagint, it was respected among both Jewish and Christian scholars. Jerome, in particular, consulted Symmachus frequently, noting that he “translated not word for word but by the sense.” This shows that Symmachus’ influence extended beyond Jewish circles into early Christian biblical studies.

Origen valued Symmachus’ contribution as a corrective to the Septuagint, which by his time had suffered from transmission errors and lacked the precision of the Hebrew Vorlage. By placing Symmachus in his Hexapla, Origen elevated him to a position of authority in comparative textual study. Even centuries later, patristic writers continued to cite Symmachus for clarification of difficult passages, a testimony to the clarity and accuracy of his work.

Symmachus’ Legacy in Textual Studies

The work of Symmachus underscores the importance of translators who balanced accuracy with readability. His method demonstrates that fidelity to the Hebrew Scriptures does not necessitate slavish literalism, nor does readability require paraphrase that sacrifices meaning. Instead, Symmachus achieved a mediating approach that reveals how Scripture could be communicated effectively across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

In the broader history of Old Testament textual transmission, Symmachus confirms the centrality of the Hebrew Masoretic tradition. His translation does not undermine that tradition but strengthens confidence in it by showing how faithfully it could be rendered into another language. The fact that Christian scholars like Jerome turned to Symmachus demonstrates that his work remained relevant even outside the Jewish community and was trusted as a reliable witness to the Hebrew text.

While only fragments of Symmachus’ translation survive today, his reputation among ancient scholars allows us to appreciate the role he played in safeguarding and transmitting the Old Testament text. His careful adaptation of Hebrew idioms into idiomatic Greek serves as a model for how translations can bridge languages while preserving the meaning and authority of the original Scriptures.

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