The Septuagint, also known as LXX, stands as one of the earliest and most significant translations of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. It was originally revered by Jewish communities but became increasingly associated with early Christian use, leading to its eventual rejection by Jewish leaders in favor of the Hebrew text. This shift highlights a key moment in the history of textual transmission and interpretation, offering a window into both Jewish and early Christian use of Scripture.

The Origins and Early Use of the Septuagint

The Septuagint was translated around 280 B.C.E. in Alexandria, Egypt. According to tradition, seventy-two Jewish scholars participated in the translation effort, giving rise to the name Septuagint, derived from the Latin word for seventy (LXX). This Greek translation provided a way for Jews living outside of Israel, particularly in the Hellenistic world, to access the Scriptures in a language they understood. At the time, many Jews in the diaspora were more fluent in Greek than Hebrew, especially in regions such as Egypt and the wider Mediterranean.

This translation was not only functional but also quickly gained status as authoritative Scripture among Greek-speaking Jews. Jesus and the apostles, as recorded in the New Testament, often quoted from the Septuagint when referring to the Old Testament, a practice that underscores its prominence during the first century. Indeed, approximately 320 direct quotations and around 890 references to the Hebrew Scriptures found in the New Testament are based on the Septuagint. Matthew 1:23, quoting Isaiah 7:14, is a prime example of a citation from the Septuagint: “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel,” a prophecy fulfilled in the birth of Jesus Christ.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

The Shift from Jewish to Christian Use

By the first century C.E., Jewish attitudes toward the Septuagint began to change. As Christians adopted the Septuagint as a key tool for evangelism and debate with the Jews, tensions arose. The early Christian community frequently used the Septuagint to argue that Jesus was the long-awaited Messiah, as prophesied in the Old Testament. This put the Septuagint at the center of theological disputes, and its use by Christians likely contributed to its rejection by Jews in the second century C.E.

This rejection led the Jewish community to return to the Hebrew text, ultimately elevating it as the standard form of Scripture. This process is significant because it marks a pivotal moment in the separation between Jewish and Christian scriptural traditions. The decision by Jews to return to the Hebrew text has proven beneficial for scholars, providing a preserved Hebrew text that serves as a critical resource for textual criticism today.

Early Christian and Jewish Greek Translations

In the second century C.E., as Jews distanced themselves from the Septuagint, new Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures emerged. These versions, such as those produced by Aquila (LXXAq), Symmachus (LXXSym), and Theodotion (LXXTh), aimed to replace the Septuagint and provide a more accurate Greek version that adhered closely to the Hebrew text. While these translations became valuable for later generations of Jews and Christians, the Septuagint remained an essential text within the early church.

Despite the shift away from the Septuagint by Jewish leaders, the translation continued to hold importance in Christian circles. The early church fathers frequently referenced the Septuagint in their writings, and it was included in key biblical manuscripts such as Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus, and Codex Alexandrinus.

The Greek Septuagint and the Divine Name

One of the intriguing aspects of the Septuagint is the way it handles the divine name, Jehovah (JHVH). Early fragments of the Septuagint, such as those found in the Fouad Papyri (Inventory No. 266), contain portions of Genesis and Deuteronomy dating back to the first century B.C.E. These papyri reveal that the divine name was originally included in the text. In the book of Deuteronomy, the Tetragrammaton, representing Jehovah’s name, appears in various places, written in ancient Hebrew characters within the Greek text.

This is confirmed by Origen’s six-column Hexapla, completed around 245 C.E., in which he noted that “In the most accurate manuscripts THE NAME occurs in Hebrew characters, yet not in today’s Hebrew [characters], but in the most ancient ones.” This indicates that early copies of the Septuagint maintained the Tetragrammaton. However, over time, Kyrios (Lord) and Theos (God) were substituted for the divine name, likely due to Jewish scribal traditions that avoided the pronunciation of Jehovah.

The presence of the divine name in early copies of the Septuagint demonstrates that early Christians would have used the Greek Scriptures, including the divine name, in their ministry. Acts 2:21, quoting Joel 2:32 from the Septuagint, reinforces this: “And it shall come to pass that everyone who calls upon the name of Jehovah shall be saved.”

The Importance of the Septuagint in Christian Evangelism

As the early church expanded into the Greek-speaking world, the Septuagint became an indispensable tool for evangelism. It enabled Christians to explain the prophecies about Christ and the teachings of the Old Testament to Greek-speaking audiences. Paul, for instance, frequently engaged with both Jews and Gentiles, and his use of the Septuagint is evident in many of his writings. Acts 17:2-3 notes how Paul reasoned with the Jews from the Scriptures, “explaining and proving that it was necessary for the Christ to suffer and to rise from the dead.”

The Septuagint’s widespread use among the early Christians also led to its inclusion in key manuscripts. Codices such as the Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus, produced in the fourth and fifth centuries C.E., contain large portions of the Old Testament in the Septuagint version. These manuscripts are written in uncial script—large, separated capital letters that were common in early Greek manuscripts. From the ninth century onward, a shift occurred toward minuscule, or cursive, script, which became the standard form of writing in later Greek manuscripts.

Variants Between the Septuagint and the Hebrew Text

While the Septuagint is based on the Hebrew Scriptures, there are notable differences between the two. These variants offer critical insights into the textual transmission of the Old Testament. For instance, the Book of Jeremiah in the Septuagint is shorter than the version found in the Masoretic Text. The arrangement of the chapters also differs between the two versions. Such discrepancies highlight the fluidity of the textual tradition during the centuries leading up to the Masoretic Text’s standardization.

Another example is the variant found in Isaiah 53:11. The Septuagint includes the word “light,” which is missing in the Masoretic Text. The passage in the Septuagint reads, “Out of the anguish of his soul he shall see light and be satisfied.” This addition underscores the theme of resurrection and vindication, a theme central to Christian theology. Isaiah 53 is one of the most frequently quoted Old Testament passages in the New Testament, often cited in reference to the suffering and resurrection of Christ (e.g., Acts 8:32-35).

The Septuagint, therefore, plays a crucial role in understanding how certain Old Testament passages were interpreted by early Christians. The New Testament authors, writing under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, frequently relied on the Septuagint when explaining the life and work of Christ, particularly when addressing Greek-speaking audiences.

The Role of the Septuagint in Old Testament Textual Criticism

The study of the Septuagint is integral to the field of Old Testament textual criticism. By comparing the Septuagint with the Hebrew Masoretic Text and other ancient versions, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars can assess the accuracy and transmission history of the biblical text. In some cases, the Septuagint preserves readings that may reflect an earlier stage of the Hebrew text.

For example, the book of Psalms in the Septuagint offers an interesting variant in Psalm 22:16. The Masoretic Text reads, “like a lion at my hands and feet,” while the Septuagint reads, “They have pierced my hands and feet.” The Septuagint rendering, which aligns with early Christian interpretations, is significant because it foreshadows the crucifixion of Christ. This verse is directly quoted in the New Testament in John 19:37, pointing to the fulfillment of prophecy in Jesus’ suffering and death.

Textual criticism seeks to uncover the most original form of the biblical text. The Septuagint, as one of the earliest translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, provides a critical witness to the Old Testament’s textual history, especially when its readings differ from the Masoretic Text.

The Legacy of the Septuagint in Christian Theology

Though the Jewish community eventually abandoned the Septuagint, its influence on Christian theology is undeniable. Early Christian writers, such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Augustine, viewed the Septuagint as divinely inspired and often preferred its readings over the Hebrew text. The Septuagint’s rendering of key Messianic prophecies, including Isaiah 7:14’s reference to a “virgin” conceiving and bearing a son, shaped early Christian understandings of Christ’s incarnation.

The Septuagint was also instrumental in the development of the Christian canon. When the early church fathers sought to establish a Christian Old Testament, they frequently turned to the Septuagint as their authoritative text. This decision had far-reaching implications, as it influenced the canonization process and the inclusion of certain books that were not part of the Hebrew Bible, such as the deuterocanonical books (which we do not recognize as part of the canon).

The Septuagint continues to be a valuable resource for biblical scholars, providing an early witness to the text of the Hebrew Scriptures and offering insights into the theological perspectives of early Christians. Its widespread use in the early church and its presence in significant New Testament passages underscore its enduring importance in the study of Scripture.

The Septuagint’s Lasting Contribution

Though the Septuagint originated as a translation for Greek-speaking Jews, its legacy extends far beyond its original context. It became the primary Scripture of the early Christian church and played a central role in shaping Christian theology and biblical interpretation. Its influence is evident in the New Testament, where its quotations of the Old Testament are found frequently. Moreover, the Septuagint’s variants and unique renderings provide scholars with valuable insights into the textual history of the Hebrew Bible, helping to reconstruct the earliest forms of Scripture.

The Septuagint serves as a testament to the spread of God’s Word across linguistic and cultural boundaries, offering both ancient and modern believers a deeper understanding of the Scriptures. Through careful study and comparison with other ancient texts, the Septuagint remains a vital tool for understanding the Bible’s rich and complex transmission history.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).