א (Codex Sinaiticus)

The Codex Sinaiticus, with its official designation in the British Library as Add MS 43725 and known by the siglum א [Aleph] or 01 (according to the Gregory-Aland numbering system), and δ 2 (in the von Soden numbering system), stands as a monumental fourth-century Christian manuscript. This Greek Bible manuscript encompasses the vast majority of the Greek Old Testament, inclusive of the deuterocanonical books, as well as the entire Greek New Testament, complemented by the inclusion of the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. Crafted with uncial script on parchment, Codex Sinaiticus belongs to the elite cadre of the four great uncial codices, a distinguished group originally comprising the complete texts of both the Old and New Testaments.

Positioned alongside Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus is celebrated as one of the earliest and most comprehensive biblical manuscripts, harboring the oldest complete copy of the New Testament known to date. Dated through paleographical analysis to the mid-fourth century (330-360 C.E.), this manuscript is a pivotal resource for biblical scholars, offering an unparalleled glimpse into the textual history and transmission of the biblical canon.

The significance of Codex Sinaiticus in New Testament textual criticism cannot be overstated, sharing the spotlight with Codex Vaticanus as one of the pivotal Greek texts for New Testament studies. The discovery of Codex Sinaiticus by Constantin von Tischendorf in 1844 marked a turning point in biblical scholarship, providing a critical comparative tool alongside Codex Vaticanus for the analysis and study of the biblical text.

Originally located at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, parts of the codex have since been dispersed across four libraries globally, though the majority of the manuscript is proudly housed and displayed in the British Library in London. The journey of Codex Sinaiticus from its monastic origins to its current status as a treasured artifact in biblical scholarship underscores its enduring value and impact on the study of Christian scripture.

Content

Codex Sinaiticus, designated by the symbol א, is a seminal ancient biblical manuscript. It encompasses the entire Old Testament and New Testament. The order of the New Testament texts in this codex is as follows: the Four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, and Revelation. Additionally, Codex Sinaiticus contains two significant early Christian writings not found in the canonical New Testament: The Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. This manuscript is composed of 346 leaves of fine parchment, notable for its four-column format. The comprehensive content and meticulous arrangement of Codex Sinaiticus make it a critical resource for biblical scholarship, offering insights into the textual tradition and the canon of Scripture as understood in the early Christian era.

Notable Readings

Codex Sinaiticus, marked as א in scholarly notation, is among the most significant ancient texts of the New Testament, yet it is notable for the absence of certain passages commonly found in later manuscripts. This codex, dating back to the 4th century, provides invaluable insights into the textual history of the New Testament, reflecting an earlier form of the text that differs in several respects from that of later Byzantine manuscripts. Here are some key omitted verses from Codex Sinaiticus:

• Gospel of Matthew: It excludes passages like Matthew 12:47, where Jesus is informed that His mother and brothers are standing outside. Similarly, the verses concerning the sign of Jonah (Matthew 16:2b–3) and several others (Matthew 17:21; 18:11; 23:14) are not included.
• Gospel of Mark: The omission of verses such as Mark 7:16, which talks about having ears to hear, and others (Mark 9:44, 46; 11:26; 15:28) suggests a shorter version of Mark’s Gospel in this codex. Most notably, the long ending of Mark (Mark 16:9–20), which contains post-resurrection appearances, is absent, aligning Sinaiticus with other early manuscripts that also lack this section.
• Gospel of Luke: In Luke’s Gospel, Codex Sinaiticus does not include Luke 17:36, a verse paralleled in Matthew but missing here, likely due to a copying error or homeoteleuton (skipping text with similar endings).
• Gospel of John: The story of the angel stirring the water at Bethesda (John 5:4) and the Pericope Adulterae (John 7:53–8:11), which recounts the story of the woman caught in adultery, are both absent. Their omission is particularly significant as these passages are subjects of extensive debate regarding their authenticity.
• Acts and Epistles: The codex also omits several verses in Acts, such as Acts 8:37 (the Ethiopian eunuch’s confession of faith), Acts 15:34 (which suggests that Judas Barsabbas and Silas might remain in Antioch), Acts 24:7, and Acts 28:29 (Paul’s final words in Rome). In the Epistles, Romans 16:24, a benediction, is not present.

Codex Sinaiticus’s omissions are crucial for understanding the development of the New Testament text. Its lack of certain passages that are present in later manuscripts highlights the textual variations and the dynamic nature of scripture transmission in the early Christian centuries. The study of such variations not only sheds light on how the biblical text was received and transmitted by early Christians but also helps scholars reconstruct the most probable original text of the New Testament.

Here’s a look at some of the notable omitted phrases and variations in Codex Sinaiticus:

• Matthew 5:44: This manuscript omits the directive to “bless those who curse you, do good to those who hate you,” emphasizing the distinctiveness of its text in comparison with other manuscripts like B, ƒ1, 205, and others.
• Matthew 6:13: The doxology “For Yours is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever. Amen.” is not included, aligning Sinaiticus with manuscripts such as B and D, among others, indicating variations in early Christian liturgical practices or textual transmission.
• Matthew 10:39: Sinaiticus uniquely omits the continuation “He who finds his life will lose it, and,” illustrating the singular readings that contribute to critical textual analysis.
• Matthew 15:6: The phrase “or his mother” is absent, a variation shared with manuscripts B, D, and others, highlighting differences in the transmission of familial obligations.
• Matthew 20:23: Missing is “and be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with,” showing variance in how Christ’s sacrificial role and followers’ identification with Him were portrayed.
• Matthew 23:35: The specification “son of Barachi’ah” is included, contrasting with other manuscripts and pointing to variations in how biblical figures are identified.
• Mark 1:1: The title “the Son of God” is absent, reflecting early Christian debates on Christological titles and their inclusion in the Gospel narratives.
• Mark 10:7: Sinaiticus excludes “and be joined to his wife,” highlighting differences in the textual tradition regarding marriage and unity.
• Luke 9:55–56: This codex includes Jesus’ rebuke, emphasizing His mission of salvation over judgment, a reading shared with several other early manuscripts but omitted in others, reflecting theological emphases in early Christian communities.
• John 4:9: The observation “Jews have no dealings with Samaritans” is omitted in Sinaiticus’s primary text but included in a correction, illustrating the complexities of textual transmission and the intersection of cultural and religious tensions.

Codex Sinaiticus’s textual variations and omissions are pivotal for understanding the development of the New Testament canon. Its departures from later manuscript traditions underscore the dynamic nature of early Christian scripture transmission and the efforts to preserve, interpret, and understand the Christian message through the ages.

Some passages and phrases that were excluded by the corrector.

1. Matthew 24:36 – “nor the Son” is included in the original text of Codex Sinaiticus, aligning with manuscripts like B and D. This phrase was questioned by an early corrector, marked as doubtful, which mirrors the omission in several other manuscripts. However, a subsequent corrector removed this mark of doubt, reaffirming its inclusion.
2. Mark 10:40 – The phrase “by my Father” is part of the original scribe’s work, found also in manuscripts such as Θ and ƒ1. An early corrector marked this as doubtful, a sentiment echoed in many other manuscripts that omit the phrase. Yet, this doubt was later removed by another corrector.
3. Luke 11:4 – The petition “but deliver us from evil” appears in the original writing of Codex Sinaiticus, a reading supported by a wide array of manuscripts. It was initially marked as doubtful by a corrector, aligning with the omission in notable manuscripts like 𝔓75 and B. Nevertheless, this doubt was eventually cleared by a later correction.
4. Luke 22:43–44 – The vivid description of Christ’s agony at Gethsemane is included by the original scribe of Codex Sinaiticus. This inclusion was marked as doubtful by an early corrector, reflecting the omission in significant manuscripts such as 𝔓69(vid) and P75. However, this marking was removed by a subsequent corrector, reaffirming the passage’s authenticity.
5. Luke 23:34a – Jesus’ plea for forgiveness, “Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do,” is initially included in Codex Sinaiticus. Despite being marked as doubtful by an early corrector, in line with the omission in manuscripts like P75 and B, this marking was later removed, indicating the passage’s reinstatement.

Let’s look at a couple of instances where the Codex Sinaiticus adds content not found in all manuscripts:

1. Matthew 8:13 (parallel to Luke 7:10): In this passage, the Codex Sinaiticus tells us that after Jesus healed a centurion’s servant from afar, the centurion went back to his house and discovered the servant was in good health. This specific detail, emphasizing the servant’s recovery at the exact hour Jesus said he would heal him, underscores the immediacy and power of Jesus’ healing words. The manuscript presents this account with the phrase, “and when the centurion returned to the house in that hour, he found the slave well,” a narrative that aligns closely with Luke’s account and is supported by other manuscripts like C, Θ, and ƒ1, showing a rich tapestry of textual witness across early Christian documents.
2. Matthew 10:12 (parallel to Luke 10:5): Here, Jesus instructs his disciples on how to greet a household they enter, advising them to say, “peace to this house.” The Codex Sinaiticus includes this directive, though it’s noted that an early corrector removed this reading, only for it to be reinstated by another corrector. This back-and-forth in the manuscript highlights the dynamic nature of early Christian text transmission and the careful consideration given to Jesus’ teachings on peace and hospitality.
3. Matthew 27:49 (parallel to John 19:34): In an addition that parallels John’s account of Jesus’ crucifixion, the Codex Sinaiticus contains a description of Jesus’ side being pierced with a spear, causing blood and water to flow out. This detail, not found in all manuscripts, adds to the narrative of Jesus’ suffering and crucifixion, providing a graphic image of his sacrifice. The inclusion of this passage in Codex Sinaiticus but not universally across other manuscripts showcases the complexity and diversity of the New Testament textual tradition.

Here’s an overview of some of its notable readings:

1. Matthew 7:22 introduces the word “numerous,” suggesting a direct inquiry about the expulsion of a significant number of demons, which uniquely appears in this codex.
2. Matthew 8:12 uses the term “will go out,” a variant contributing to discussions on eschatological narratives within the gospel.
3. In Matthew 13:54, the manuscript uniquely refers to Jesus returning to “his own Antipatris,” a reading that diverges from the more commonly known geographical references.
4. Acts 8:5 mentions Philip going to “the city of Caesarea,” offering a specific locale not typically found in other texts.
5. Matthew 16:12 warns against the “leaven of bread of the Pharisees and Sadducees,” aligning with themes of caution against doctrinal corruption.
6. Luke 1:26 and Luke 2:37 present unique readings regarding geographical locations and age, respectively, highlighting the meticulous detail in the narrative.
7. John 1:28 initially mentions Bethany before a correction changes it to “Betharaba,” showing the scribe’s concern for accurate location details.
8. John 1:34 labels Jesus as “the chosen one,” a significant theological statement about Jesus’ identity.
9. John 2:3 gives a detailed reason for the shortage of wine at the wedding, attributing it to the completion of the wine supply.
10. John 6:10 intriguingly notes “three thousand” before a correction updates it to “five thousand,” indicating a keen interest in the number of attendees at the feeding of the multitude.
11. Acts 11:20 interestingly uses “Evangelists,” pointing to the active role of proclaiming the gospel.
12. Acts 14:9 uniquely notes that a man had “not heard,” emphasizing the miraculous nature of the healing that follows.
13. Hebrews 2:4 uses “harvests” as a metaphor for divine interventions, a singular reading within the manuscript.
14. 1 Peter 5:13 and 2 Timothy 4:10 reference the “Church” and “Gaul” respectively, highlighting the early Christian community’s geographical spread and Paul’s travels.

Each variant opens a window into the early Christian world, offering insights into how the texts were read, understood, and lived by the communities that cherished them.

Date

Codex Sinaiticus is generally dated to the fourth century, with a consensus among scholars placing it in the middle of that century. This broad dating is based on the palaeographical analysis of the handwriting found within the codex.

Palaeographical Analysis

The primary method for dating Codex Sinaiticus is through palaeographical analysis, which examines the script’s style and features. The handwriting of the codex is consistent with that of other known documents from the mid-fourth century.

Historical Context

Some scholars have suggested that Codex Sinaiticus may have been one of the fifty Bibles commissioned by the Roman Emperor Constantine around 330 C.E., as mentioned by Eusebius in his “Life of Constantine.” However, others have dated the handwriting to a slightly later period, around 360 C.E.

Eusebian Apparatus

The presence of the Eusebian apparatus, a system of section divisions developed by Eusebius of Caesarea, within Codex Sinaiticus indicates that the codex was produced after Eusebius introduced this system, which is estimated to have been around 300-325 C.E. This provides a terminus post quem (earliest possible date) for the codex’s production.

Scribe D’s Notes

Milne and Skeat, two prominent scholars, believed that the notes in the codex, which exhibit occasional cursive characteristics, were copied by scribe D. They argued that these notes “certainly belong to the fourth century, and probably the first half of it.” If their assessment is correct, it would support the dating of the codex to the early to mid-fourth century.

Physical Features

Codex Sinaiticus, a foundational manuscript in the study of New Testament textual criticism, represents an early transition from the scroll to the codex format, akin to contemporary books. Crafted from high-quality vellum parchment, this codex initially comprised double sheets, roughly measuring 40 by 70 cm. The majority of its construction follows a quire composition, each consisting of eight leaves (excluding a few exceptions), a design that gained popularity into the Medieval era. This method involves laying eight parchment pages atop each other, folding them in half to form a quire or folio, and binding several quires together to create the complete manuscript.

Contrary to earlier assessments by scholars like Tischendorf—who speculated an antelope origin for the parchment—modern microscopic analyses have confirmed the material primarily derives from calf skins, with sheep skins used secondarily. An estimated 360 animal hides were utilized, underscoring the significant resources invested in its creation. The codex’s text is presented in four columns per page, featuring 12 to 14 Greek uncial letters per line, with a total count nearing four million letters. This layout mirrors the appearance of ancient papyrus rolls, albeit in a more evolved form.

The dimensions and proportions of the pages and text blocks were crafted with precision, reflecting an advanced understanding of typographic principles for that period. The manuscript’s material, intricate scribal work, and binding collectively represent a considerable investment, equating to the lifetime wages of an individual at the time.

Within the New Testament, the scriptio continua style—writing without spaces between words—predominates, executed in a hand known as “biblical uncial” or “majuscule.” The parchment was precisely ruled to guide the uniform handwriting, devoid of breathings or polytonic accents. Various punctuation forms and a few ligatures enhance the text’s readability, despite its compact script.

A noteworthy aspect of Codex Sinaiticus is the consistent use of nomina sacra, a form of abbreviation for sacred names, evident throughout its texts. These abbreviations, alongside instances of itacism, indicate both the scribal practices of the time and the manuscript’s theological emphasis.

Delving further into the textual characteristics of the Codex Sinaiticus, particularly within the New Testament manuscripts, we encounter a distinct scribal practice known as scriptio continua. This technique, which eschews the use of spaces between words, is executed in a handwriting style historically referred to as “biblical uncial” or “biblical majuscule.” The preparation of the parchment involved meticulous ruling with a sharp point, a foundational step to ensure that the script followed a consistent trajectory across the surface. The uncial letters inscribed upon these lines do not accommodate breathings or polytonic accents—diacritical marks indicative of phonetic nuances or grammatical emphases within the Greek language. Instead, the manuscript employs various punctuation marks such as high and middle points, colons, and the diaeresis, notably on initial iotas and upsilons, to aid in textual clarity and interpretation. Additionally, the occurrence of ligatures and the distinctive practice of extending the initial letter of paragraphs into the margin (although this varies in extent) further characterize the codex’s unique textual presentation. A recurrent phonetic feature within the manuscript is itacism—the substitution of the iota for the epsilon-iota diphthong in words like ΔΑΥΕΙΔ (David), ΠΕΙΛΑΤΟΣ (Pilate), and ΦΑΡΕΙΣΑΙΟΙ (Pharisees), underscoring a phonological evolution in the Greek language during the period of the codex’s creation.

A notable textual feature throughout Codex Sinaiticus is the extensive use of nomina sacra, a scribal practice involving the abbreviation of sacred names, each marked with an overline. This method not only signifies the manuscript’s religious reverence but also reflects a broader scribal tradition within early Christian manuscripts. Interestingly, certain terms that are commonly abbreviated in other manuscripts appear in both their full and abbreviated forms within Codex Sinaiticus. Among these, the most significant include abbreviations for key theological and ecclesiastical terms: ΘΣ (God), ΚΣ (Lord), ΙΣ (Jesus), ΧΣ (Christ), ΠΝΑ (Spirit), and others related to Christian doctrine and biblical narrative. These abbreviations, employed with strategic theological intent, encapsulate the essence of the Christian faith as perceived by the manuscript’s scribes. The dual representation of certain words, alongside the consistent use of nomina sacra, not only aids in textual comprehension but also imbues the manuscript with a profound religious significance, reflecting the theological priorities and liturgical practices of early Christianity.

The meticulous approach to writing, punctuation, and the employment of nomina sacra in Codex Sinaiticus offers a window into the religious and cultural milieu of its creation. This analysis, grounded in an objective examination of the codex’s physical and textual features, underscores its importance not only as a historical document but also as a testament to the complex interplay between religious tradition, textual transmission, and linguistic evolution in early Christian communities.

The surviving portion of the codex, now housed in the British Library, consists of over half of the original work, split across 346½ folios. This includes significant portions of both the Old and New Testaments, the Deuterocanonical books, the Epistle of Barnabas, and parts of The Shepherd of Hermas. Notably, the New Testament books are arranged in a distinct sequence that differs from modern canonical orders.

The condition of the manuscript varies, suggesting it was stored in multiple locations over time. While substantial portions of the Old Testament are lost, the extant sections provide invaluable insight into the textual history of the Christian scriptures.

In conclusion, Codex Sinaiticus stands as a monumental artifact in Christian history, offering critical insights into the text of the New Testament and early Christian literature. Its physical and textual characteristics not only reflect the technological and theological advancements of its time but also continue to inform contemporary biblical scholarship.

Textual Character

Codex Sinaiticus is represented by the Hebrew letter aleph (א) in scholarly works. Variations within the text of Codex Sinaiticus are indicated by symbols such as א* and א2, which denote the original scribe’s text and corrections made by a later hand, respectively.

Textual Readings and Corrections

The manuscript exhibits textual variants, such as the reading ευαγγελιϲταϲ in Acts 11:20, which differs from the Textus Receptus reading of Ἑλληνιστάς. Marks above the variant indicate a textual discrepancy noted by the scribes or correctors.

Textual Families

Codex Sinaiticus is associated with the Alexandrian text-type, characterized by grammatical refinements and a tendency to prune the text by removing what was considered superfluous. It is generally in agreement with other manuscripts of the Alexandrian family, such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, but shows some affinity with the Western text-type in certain passages, such as John 1:1–8:38.

Textual Criticism and Manuscript Analysis

Textual criticism aims to determine the most reliable reading of a text, and Codex Sinaiticus is a crucial witness in this field due to its antiquity and completeness. Variants are analyzed for their nature rather than their number, with spelling differences constituting a significant portion of the variants.

Scribe and Corrector Annotations

The text of Codex Sinaiticus has been heavily annotated by a series of early correctors, making it one of the most corrected manuscripts in existence. These annotations provide insights into the textual decisions and preferences of early Christian scribes and correctors.

Textual Order and Content

The order of books in Codex Sinaiticus is specific, with the New Testament arranged in the order of the Gospels, Pauline epistles, Acts, General Epistles, and Revelation. The manuscript also includes two other early Christian writings, the Epistle of Barnabas and part of The Shepherd of Hermas

Scribes and Correctors

In our objective and analytical exploration of the Codex Sinaiticus, a critical component to understand involves the manuscript’s scribes and the subsequent corrections made to its text. Initially, Tischendorf identified four scribes (A, B, C, and D) and five correctors (a, b, c, d, and e) in his examination of the codex. He suggested that one corrector worked contemporaneously with the original scribes, while the others contributed in the sixth and seventh centuries. However, Tischendorf’s assessment regarding scribe C, who he believed was responsible for the poetic books of the Old Testament formatted differently from the rest of the manuscript, was later reconsidered. Milne and Skeat’s reinvestigation revealed that scribe C’s existence was a misinterpretation by Tischendorf, based on the different formatting of these texts.

The contemporary consensus identifies three scribes (A, B, and D) responsible for the manuscript’s content, as originally labeled by Tischendorf. It’s also recognized that there were more correctors than Tischendorf identified, totaling at least seven. The responsibilities and characteristics of the three confirmed scribes are as follows:

• Scribe A was tasked with most of the Old Testament’s historical and poetical books, nearly the entire New Testament, and the Epistle of Barnabas. Despite the significant portion of text attributed to him, scribe A, alongside scribe B, demonstrated a less reliable spelling capability, with scribe A noted for making “some unusually serious mistakes.”
• Scribe B handled the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas, characterized by Metzger as “careless and illiterate.”
• Scribe D was responsible for Tobit, Judith, a portion of 4 Maccabees, two-thirds of the Psalms, and the opening verses of Revelation. Distinguished for a relatively better spelling accuracy, scribe D carefully differentiated between sacral and nonsacral uses of terms, particularly ΚΥΡΙΟΣ.

The scribes employed nomina sacra, though their usage varied, with scribes A and B preferring contracted forms, whereas scribe D frequently opted for uncontracted versions. This variance highlights differing scribal practices and possibly differing theological emphases or levels of formality in their work.

Corrections to the manuscript are a significant aspect of its history, indicating the codex’s dynamic nature through its early life and beyond. Initial corrections were made in the scriptorium before its distribution. These early modifications are marked as א‎a. Interestingly, the process of correction and modification extended into later centuries, particularly noted in the sixth or seventh centuries, with alterations marked as א‎b. These later corrections were informed by “a very ancient manuscript” corrected by Pamphylus, a martyr, suggesting a linkage to Origen’s Hexapla, particularly for sections from 1 Samuel to Esther.

This analysis underscores the complexity and layered history of the Codex Sinaiticus. The efforts of its scribes and correctors reflect both the challenges of preserving sacred texts and the evolving understanding of scriptural transcription and interpretation across generations.

History of Codex Sinaiticus

The tale of the Codex Sinaiticus is not just a chapter from the annals of history but a narrative brimming with drama, discovery, and the passionate pursuit of biblical authenticity. It’s a story that underlines the Codex’s monumental value, not merely as an artifact of ancient times but as a crucial piece in the puzzle of biblical manuscript tradition.

Konstantin von Tischendorf, born in 1815 in Saxony, was more than just a scholar; he was a man on a mission. Educated in Greek at the University of Leipzig, Tischendorf found himself at odds with the prevailing scholarly trend of higher criticism, which aimed to question the authenticity of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Convinced that the truth lay in the manuscripts of early Christianity, he embarked on a scholarly quest that would lead him to the ends of the known academic world.

His journey, which began in the libraries of Europe, eventually led him to the remote Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai. This fortress-like abode of monks, perched high above the Red Sea, was accessible only by a basket on a rope. Here, Tischendorf made a groundbreaking discovery: ancient parchments destined for the flames, among which were 129 leaves of a manuscript older than any he had encountered before. These parchments were parts of the Hebrew Scriptures, translated into Greek.

Despite his initial success, it was not until his third visit, years later, that Tischendorf’s persistence truly paid off. On the verge of departure, he was shown more of the same manuscript, which included not only the remainder of the Hebrew Scriptures but the entire Christian Greek Scriptures. This was the Codex Sinaiticus, a manuscript of such age and completeness that it would become one of the most important biblical manuscripts known to exist.

Tischendorf’s negotiation skills and dedication allowed him to take the Codex to Cairo for copying, and eventually to Russia, as a gift to the czar from the monastery. Today, this priceless treasure is housed in the British Museum, a testament to Tischendorf’s life-long dedication to preserving the Word of God.

The account of the Codex Sinaiticus’s rescue highlights not only a momentous chapter in the annals of biblical scholarship but also the human tenacity and dedication to the pursuit of knowledge. This manuscript’s journey from the verge of destruction to becoming one of the most celebrated texts in the British Museum is a testament to Konstantin von Tischendorf’s relentless dedication. His discovery underlines a significant point: often, the preservation of history relies on the curiosity, determination, and actions of individuals. Tischendorf’s efforts exemplify how passion for one’s work, combined with a stroke of serendipity, can lead to the safeguarding of our collective heritage. In the broader spectrum of historical preservation, it serves as a reminder of the importance of individual contributions towards saving invaluable artifacts for future generations.

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