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The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

The history of biblical translations is a deeply complex and multifaceted subject, particularly when exploring the lesser-known Gothic version. In tracing the trajectory of this translation, we encounter both a linguistic marvel and a crucial chapter in the story of God’s Word being disseminated to different cultures and peoples. The Gothic Bible holds significant interest not only due to its place in history but because of its lasting influence on the study of biblical manuscripts, textual variants, and the spread of Christianity among early European peoples. The man behind the translation, Wulfila, stands as a towering figure in the early efforts to bring the Scriptures into a language that the common people could understand, and his legacy continues to be of interest to textual scholars and Bible translators to this day.

The Origins of the Gothic People

The Goths were a Germanic people who played a significant role in the history of Europe from the 3rd to the 6th centuries C.E. They were initially a loose confederation of tribes that lived along the Danube River and in other areas of Eastern Europe. As they spread across the continent, their interactions with the Roman Empire would have a profound influence on both Roman and Gothic history. The Goths eventually divided into two major groups: the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths.

One of the most significant events in Gothic history was their conversion to Christianity. The Goths did not convert en masse in a single moment, but over time, missionaries made headway among the Gothic tribes. It is important to understand that the form of Christianity adopted by the Goths was largely influenced by Arianism, a Christological doctrine that emphasized the subordination of Jesus Christ to God the Father, a belief that placed them at odds with the mainstream Trinitarian views of the Roman Empire. This Arian influence was crucial to their early Christian identity, shaping their theological outlook and how they understood Scripture.

The Role of Wulfila in the Conversion of the Goths

At the heart of the Gothic Bible’s translation was Wulfila, also known as Ulfilas, a bishop and missionary who lived from 311 to 383 C.E. He is often regarded as the “Apostle to the Goths” for his pioneering work in bringing Christianity to the Gothic people. Wulfila himself was of mixed ancestry, having been born to a Christian family that had been captured by the Goths during raids in Asia Minor. His upbringing and cultural background gave him a unique position as a bridge between the Roman and Gothic worlds.

Wulfila’s most enduring legacy is his translation of the Bible into the Gothic language. In doing so, he became one of the first translators to render the Scriptures into a Germanic language, making the Gothic Bible a linguistic milestone. He was also responsible for creating the Gothic alphabet, which he based on the Greek script, with some influences from Latin and possibly runic alphabets. This alphabet enabled the Gothic people to read the Scriptures in their own tongue, marking a profound shift in their religious and cultural life.

Wulfila’s translation, however, was not without its challenges. The Gothic language had a relatively limited vocabulary compared to Greek and Latin, meaning that Wulfila had to be creative in his approach. He often had to adapt or invent words to convey complex theological concepts, a task that required both linguistic skill and theological insight. For example, translating key terms such as “grace,” “sin,” and “salvation” into Gothic would have required careful thought to ensure that these concepts were rendered accurately and comprehensibly to his audience.

The Arian Influence on the Gothic Bible

An essential aspect of the Gothic Bible that textual scholars and translators must consider is the theological context in which it was created. Wulfila was a follower of Arianism, a doctrine that was declared heretical at the Council of Nicea in 325 C.E. Arianism, founded by the theologian Arius, taught that Jesus Christ was not co-eternal with God the Father but was instead a created being, though of a higher order than humans.

This theological stance had a significant influence on how Wulfila approached his translation. The Gothic Bible, therefore, reflects certain Arian tendencies in its renderings of particular passages that pertain to the nature of Christ. For example, passages that emphasize the subordination of the Son to the Father might be translated in a way that aligns with Arian Christology, whereas a Trinitarian translator might emphasize the equality and unity of the Godhead. Scholars who study the Gothic Bible are keenly aware of these nuances and often compare Wulfila’s translation with others from the same period to understand how theology influenced textual transmission.

Though the Gothic Bible was used primarily by the Arian Christian Goths, its importance transcends the doctrinal disputes of the time. It remains a valuable witness to the text of the New Testament as it was understood in the 4th century. Since many of the Greek manuscripts that formed the basis of Wulfila’s translation have been lost, the Gothic Bible provides critical insight into an ancient form of the text that might otherwise be unavailable to us.

The Textual Significance of the Gothic Bible

Textual scholars place great interest in the Gothic Bible because it represents one of the earliest translations of the New Testament into a Germanic language. While most early Christian communities used Greek or Latin versions of the Scriptures, the Gothic Bible shows us how Christianity spread beyond the boundaries of the Roman Empire and into the tribal cultures of Northern and Eastern Europe.

Because Wulfila’s translation was based on Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, the Gothic Bible serves as an important witness to the Greek textual tradition. Although many of the original Greek manuscripts that Wulfila used have been lost, the Gothic Bible preserves a reflection of those texts. This makes it a crucial resource for textual critics who seek to reconstruct the early form of the New Testament text. By comparing the Gothic Bible with surviving Greek manuscripts, as well as other ancient translations such as the Latin Vulgate and the Syriac Peshitta, scholars can gain a more nuanced understanding of the textual history of the New Testament.

Moreover, the Gothic Bible provides important evidence for understanding how the Bible was received and understood in different linguistic and cultural contexts. Wulfila’s translation was not a mere word-for-word rendering of the Greek text but was adapted to fit the Gothic language and worldview. As such, it offers valuable insights into the early reception of Christianity among the Goths and how they interpreted key theological concepts.

The Codex Argenteus: A Marvel of Manuscript Tradition

One of the most famous surviving manuscripts of the Gothic Bible is the Codex Argenteus, also known as the “Silver Bible.” This manuscript, which dates from the 6th century, is one of the most visually stunning examples of early Christian texts. It was written on purple parchment using silver ink, with certain words highlighted in gold. The use of such luxurious materials suggests that the Codex Argenteus was created for a person or institution of high status, perhaps as a gift for a Gothic king or noble.

This image is from the Codex Argenteus, a famous manuscript of Wulfila’s Gothic Bible, often referred to as the “Silver Bible” because of its distinctive use of silver ink on purple vellum.

The Codex Argenteus contains portions of the Gospels, written in the Gothic script that Wulfila had created. While much of the manuscript has been lost over time, the surviving pages provide an invaluable glimpse into the early Gothic Christian community and their engagement with Scripture. The careful craftsmanship of the Codex Argenteus also reflects the reverence with which the Gothic people regarded the Bible, even though their Arian beliefs placed them at odds with the Trinitarian orthodoxy of the broader Christian world.

The Codex Argenteus was rediscovered in the 16th century and is now housed at the Uppsala University Library in Sweden. It remains a key artifact for scholars of both textual criticism and early medieval history. The study of the Codex Argenteus has yielded numerous insights into the transmission of the Gothic Bible and its place within the broader manuscript tradition of the New Testament.

Ulfilas finished his translation just two or three years before he died in 383 C.E. The Goths who migrated to Spain and Italy mostly used this translation. Many copies of Gothic Bibles were made. It is probable that several manuscripts were produced in the scriptoria of Ravenna and Verona. This is the area where the Goths had set up their kingdom. There are surviving fragments of codices from the 6th to 8th century of the Wulfila Bible, which contain about half the Gospels and portions of the apostle Paul’s letters.

goth (Codex Argenteus) part of the four gospels (Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark); 6th c.
goth (Codex Ambrosianus A-E) Pauline epistles; c. 6th-11th c.
goth (Codex Carolinus) Romans 11-15; 6th or 7th c.
goth (Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750) John; 6th c.
goth (Codex Gissensis) Luke; 5th c.
Gothica Bononiensia (also known as the Codex Boniensis), a recently discovered (2009) palimpsest fragment with what appears to be a sermon, containing direct Bible quotes and allusions, both from previously attested parts of the Gothic Bible (the text is clearly taken from Ulfilas’ translation) and previously unattested ones (e.g., Psalms, Genesis).
Fragmenta Pannonica (also known as the Hács-Béndekpuszta fragments or the Tabella Hungarica), which consists of 1 mm thick lead plates with fragmented remnants of verses from the Gospels.

Text of The Lord’s Prayer in the Wulfila Bible

atta unsar þu in himinam,
weihnai namo þein.
qimai þiudinassus þeins.
wairþai wilja þeins,
swe in himina jah ana airþai.
hlaif unsarana þana sinteinan gif uns himma daga.
jah aflet uns þatei skulans sijaima,
swaswe jah weis afletam þaim skulam unsaraim.
jah ni briggais uns in fraistubnjai,
ak lausei uns af þamma ubilin;
unte þeina ist þiudangardi jah mahts jah wulþus in aiwins.
amen.

𐌰𐍄𐍄𐌰 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂 𐌸𐌿 𐌹𐌽 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌼,
𐍅𐌴𐌹𐌷𐌽𐌰𐌹 𐌽𐌰𐌼𐍉 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽.
𐌵𐌹𐌼𐌰𐌹 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐌽𐌰𐍃𐍃𐌿𐍃 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃.
𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹 𐍅𐌹𐌻𐌾𐌰 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃,
𐍃𐍅𐌴 𐌹𐌽 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹.
𐌷𐌻𐌰𐌹𐍆 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐌸𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌽 𐌲𐌹𐍆 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌼𐌰 𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌰.
𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌸𐌰𐍄𐌴𐌹 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌽𐍃 𐍃𐌹𐌾𐌰𐌹𐌼𐌰,
𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍃𐍅𐌴 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍃 𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄𐌰𐌼 𐌸𐌰𐌹𐌼 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌼 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌼.
𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌽𐌹 𐌱𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌹𐌽 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌿𐌱𐌽𐌾𐌰𐌹,
𐌰𐌺 𐌻𐌰𐌿𐍃𐌴𐌹 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌰𐍆 𐌸𐌰𐌼𐌼𐌰 𐌿𐌱𐌹𐌻𐌹𐌽;
𐌿𐌽𐍄𐌴 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰 𐌹𐍃𐍄 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌽𐌲𐌰𐍂𐌳𐌹 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌼𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍅𐌿𐌻𐌸𐌿𐍃 𐌹𐌽 𐌰𐌹𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍃.
𐌰𐌼𐌴𐌽.

The Linguistic Impact of the Gothic Bible

The Gothic Bible holds a special place not only in the history of biblical translation but also in the study of the Germanic languages. Because it is the earliest extensive text written in a Germanic language, the Gothic Bible is a crucial resource for linguists who study the development of these languages. The Gothic language, though now extinct, is considered a precursor to modern Germanic languages such as German, Dutch, and English. By studying the Gothic Bible, linguists can trace how certain grammatical structures, vocabulary, and phonetic patterns evolved over time.

Wulfila’s translation also had a profound impact on the Gothic language itself. By creating an alphabet and translating the Bible into Gothic, Wulfila essentially standardized the language in a way that had not been done before. His translation introduced new vocabulary and concepts into the Gothic lexicon, many of which were directly related to Christian theology. This had the effect of both preserving the Gothic language and shaping its development.

For example, Wulfila’s translation introduced terms for concepts such as “salvation,” “resurrection,” and “eternal life” into the Gothic language, concepts that may not have had direct equivalents in the pre-Christian Gothic worldview. As such, the Gothic Bible played a role not only in the religious life of the Gothic people but also in their linguistic and cultural development.

Theological Considerations for Modern Bible Translators

For modern Bible translators, the Gothic Bible offers a fascinating case study in how theology and culture influence translation choices. Wulfila’s translation reflects his Arian beliefs, which were in conflict with the orthodox Trinitarian doctrine that would later dominate mainstream Christianity. For instance, the Gothic Bible may downplay passages that emphasize the divinity of Christ or the unity of the Trinity, reflecting Wulfila’s Arian interpretation of Scripture.

This raises important questions for modern translators: How should theology influence translation? Should translators strive for a theologically neutral rendering of the text, or should they allow their doctrinal beliefs to guide their translation choices? While most modern translations aim for a balance between faithfulness to the original text and accessibility for contemporary readers, the example of Wulfila shows that translation is never entirely neutral. Every translator brings their theological and cultural presuppositions to the task, whether consciously or unconsciously.

Furthermore, Wulfila’s translation highlights the importance of adapting the Scriptures to the language and culture of the target audience. While modern translators benefit from centuries of linguistic scholarship and a wealth of manuscript evidence, they still face the same fundamental challenges that Wulfila encountered. How can complex theological concepts be rendered in a way that is both accurate and comprehensible to the reader? How can the translator ensure that the Bible speaks to the hearts and minds of people in their own language, while remaining faithful to the original meaning of the text?

These are questions that every Bible translator must grapple with, and the example of the Gothic Bible provides valuable insights into how these challenges have been addressed in the past.

Conclusion

The Gothic Bible, and particularly Wulfila’s translation, represents an important chapter in the history of biblical transmission and the spread of Christianity among early Germanic peoples. Though created in the context of Arian Christianity, the Gothic Bible remains a valuable witness to the early text of the New Testament and offers important insights into the linguistic and theological challenges of translation. For textual scholars and Bible translators alike, the Gothic Bible continues to be a source of fascination and study, providing a window into the complex interplay of language, culture, and theology in the transmission of God’s Word.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).