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The Historical Context of the Jewish Targums

The Jewish Targums represent interpretive translations of the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic, a language that became prevalent among the Jewish people during and after their exile in Babylon in the sixth century B.C.E. As Hebrew gradually ceased to function as the vernacular of the Jewish community, the need for oral translations arose, particularly during synagogue readings. The practice ensured that the populace, now more conversant in Aramaic, could understand the Scriptures. Nehemiah 8:8 illustrates a similar practice of providing explanation alongside Scripture: “And they read from the book, from the law of God, clearly, and they gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading.”

The Aramaic translations initially followed a simple verse-by-verse format for the Pentateuch and a three-verse structure for readings from the Prophets. Over time, the oral translations expanded to include paraphrases and interpretive elements, responding to linguistic, theological, and cultural challenges. This evolution underscores the practical role of the Targums in bridging the linguistic gap while also embedding contemporary interpretations into the text.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

The Purpose and Function of the Targums

The primary purpose of the Targums was to make the Scriptures accessible to a community that no longer understood Hebrew fluently. However, their function extended beyond mere linguistic translation. The Targums often served as a vehicle for resolving textual difficulties, reconciling apparent contradictions, and harmonizing Scripture with Pharisaic and rabbinic traditions. For instance, the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch and the Targum of Jonathan on the Prophets were officially sanctioned by the Jewish community and provided interpretations that aligned with prevailing theological views.

This interpretive aspect is evident in the six main functions of the Targums, as they aimed to:

Clarify obscure Hebrew words or complex syntax.
Resolve contradictions within the Hebrew text.
Reconcile the text with established Jewish tradition.
Incorporate Pharisaic and rabbinic teachings.
Elaborate on historical, legal, or theological references.
Adjust the text’s tone to strengthen or soften its impact.

Genesis 1:26 offers a glimpse into the Targum’s interpretive role. While the Hebrew text states, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness,” Targum Neofiti renders it as, “And the Word of the Lord said, ‘Let us make man in our likeness.’” Here, the targumist introduces “the Word of the Lord” (memra) as an intermediary, demonstrating reverence for the divine and avoiding anthropomorphic descriptions of God.

The Development of Official Targums

The Targum of Onkelos and the Targum of Jonathan are the most prominent examples of official Targums. These translations emerged from the Jewish communities in Palestine and were later refined in Babylon, becoming widely recognized by the third century C.E. The Targum of Onkelos focuses on the Pentateuch and reflects a more literal approach, whereas the Targum of Jonathan on the Prophets incorporates expansive interpretive elements.

During the same period, unofficial Targums also flourished in Palestine. Among these, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and the Fragmentary Targum stand out. The Fragmentary Targum includes renderings of approximately 850 verses, while Targum Pseudo-Jonathan often takes a highly paraphrastic approach, embedding extensive explanatory additions into the text. The discovery of the Neofiti 1 manuscript in the mid-20th century provided a nearly complete copy of the Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch, revealing a more restrained interpretive style compared to Targum Pseudo-Jonathan.

Interpretive Additions in the Targums

The interpretive nature of the Targums is evident in their frequent use of expansions, glosses, and theological explanations. For example, Targum Neofiti on Genesis 2:19 adds a theological dimension: “And whatever Adam called a living creature in the language of the sanctuary, that was its name.” This addition underscores the sacred nature of Adam’s authority over creation, reflecting Jewish theological perspectives.

Similarly, Targum Neofiti on Genesis 6:3 elaborates on Jehovah’s patience with humanity, stating, “Behold, I have given them the span of one hundred and twenty years (in the hope that) perhaps they might repent, but they have not done so.” This interpretation aligns with the broader biblical theme of God’s longsuffering nature, as described in 2 Peter 3:9: “The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance.”

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Genesis 4:8 provides an extraordinarily expansive paraphrase of Cain’s murder of Abel, attributing their conflict to a profound theological argument about divine justice and mercy. This addition demonstrates the targumist’s intent to provide a deeper understanding of the motivations and moral lessons underlying the narrative.

Adjustments to Anthropomorphic Expressions

The targumists frequently adjusted anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Hebrew text to reflect a heightened reverence for the divine. In Genesis 1:16-17, Targum Neofiti replaces “God made the two great lights” with “The Word of the Lord created the two large luminaries … and the Glory of the Lord set them in the firmament.” This substitution emphasizes God’s transcendence and power, avoiding any implication of physicality.

Likewise, in Genesis 2:2-3, the Targum attributes the completion of creation to “the Word of the Lord,” maintaining the same reverential tone. These adjustments align with the broader biblical teaching of God’s holiness and incomparability, as expressed in Isaiah 55:8-9: “‘For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways,’ declares Jehovah. ‘For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts.’”

Divergences and Contradictions in the Targums

Despite their professed goal of faithfully rendering the Hebrew Scriptures, the Targums occasionally contradict the original text. This phenomenon, known as converse translation, involves deliberate modifications to align the text with theological or cultural considerations.

For instance, in Exodus 33:3, the Hebrew text states, “I will not go up among you,” but Targum Neofiti reads, “I will not remove the Glory of my Shekinah from among you.” The targumist’s alteration reflects an unwillingness to accept the implication that God’s presence could be limited or withdrawn.

Similarly, Malachi 2:16, which declares that Jehovah hates divorce, is rendered in Targum Neofiti as, “For if you hate her, divorce her.” This contradiction reflects the targumist’s attempt to reconcile the biblical text with contemporary practices and interpretations of Jewish law.

Theological and Practical Implications of the Targums

The Targums provide valuable insights into the theological perspectives and cultural context of ancient Judaism. They highlight the reverence for Jehovah’s holiness and the desire to harmonize Scripture with tradition, while also revealing the challenges of translation and interpretation.

At the same time, the Targums serve as a reminder of the importance of approaching Scripture with humility and a commitment to faithful exegesis. 2 Timothy 3:16-17 emphasizes the sufficiency of Scripture: “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, equipped for every good work.” The interpretive nature of the Targums underscores the need for careful discernment in distinguishing between inspired Scripture and human commentary.

Conclusion: A Cautionary Reflection

The Jewish Targums represent a rich and complex tradition of interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures. They provide a glimpse into the linguistic, theological, and cultural dynamics of the Jewish community during the post-exilic period and beyond. While their interpretive expansions and adjustments offer valuable insights, they also serve as a cautionary reminder of the potential for human bias to influence the understanding of Scripture. As believers, we are called to study the Bible with reverence and diligence, relying on the guidance of the Spirit-inspired Word of God to discern its true meaning and application.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).