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The Origins and Historical Context of the Septuagint

The Greek Septuagint, often abbreviated as LXX, represents one of the most critical translations of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its name, meaning “seventy,” is traditionally associated with the 72 Jewish translators reputed to have undertaken this monumental task during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 B.C.E.). The Letter of Aristeas, though widely regarded as a fictionalized account, provides a detailed narrative of the translation’s origins. According to this account, Ptolemy desired the Hebrew Scriptures for his famed library in Alexandria. The Jewish high priest Eleazar responded by sending six elders from each of the twelve tribes of Israel, totaling 72 translators, to complete the work.

The actual historical motivation for creating the Septuagint, however, was more pragmatic. The Jewish population in Alexandria, which had grown significantly since the establishment of the city, largely spoke Koine Greek. Their diminishing fluency in Hebrew necessitated a Greek translation for liturgical and educational purposes. This translation ensured that Jews in the Diaspora could maintain their connection to the Scriptures.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

The Process of Translation

The Letter of Aristeas paints an elaborate and reverential picture of the translation process, claiming divine guidance in achieving a perfectly harmonious text. The translators purportedly worked in isolation and yet produced identical renderings, a detail later embellished by early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr and Irenaeus. However, the narrative likely exaggerates the process, which was more complex and human in nature. The Pentateuch, or the first five books of Moses, was translated first, followed by other sections of the Hebrew Scriptures over time.

The translation of the Pentateuch exhibits a remarkable degree of stylistic unity, suggesting a coordinated effort. Later translations, such as those of the Prophets and the Writings, display less uniformity, indicating varied translators and methodologies. The Septuagint translators faced significant challenges, including the lack of established Greek vocabulary for many Hebrew concepts. They had to develop new terms or adapt existing ones, which contributed to the distinct linguistic style of the Septuagint.

Unique Features and Variations in the Septuagint

The Septuagint differs from the Hebrew Scriptures in several ways, including its arrangement of books and the inclusion of additional texts. Unlike the Hebrew canon, which is divided into the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings, the Septuagint organizes books based on literary genres: historical, poetic, sapiential, and prophetic. This arrangement influenced later Christian Bibles.

Additional texts, such as Tobit, 1 Maccabees, and Ecclesiasticus, appear in the Septuagint but are absent from the Hebrew Scriptures. Other books, like Esther and Daniel, include supplemental material. For instance, the Greek version of Esther contains six additional sections, and Daniel incorporates sections such as the Song of the Three Holy Children and Bel and the Dragon.

These textual differences raise questions about the Hebrew manuscripts used by the translators. In some cases, the Septuagint reflects a Hebrew textual tradition different from the later Masoretic Text. This divergence is especially evident in books like Jeremiah, which is significantly shorter in the Septuagint than in the Masoretic Text. Such discrepancies suggest that the Septuagint may preserve older or alternative Hebrew traditions.

Theological Adjustments in the Septuagint

The Septuagint translators occasionally adapted their renderings to reflect theological concerns or cultural sensitivities. Anthropomorphic descriptions of God were often softened. For example, Genesis 6:6–7, which describes Jehovah repenting for creating humanity, is rendered in the Septuagint as “He took it to heart,” avoiding the implication of divine fallibility. Similarly, in Exodus 24:9–10, where the Hebrew text states that Moses and the elders saw Jehovah, the Septuagint modifies this to say they saw “the place where the God of Israel stood.”

These adjustments demonstrate the translators’ reluctance to ascribe human attributes or emotions to Jehovah, aligning the text with the Hellenistic philosophical preference for an impassible and transcendent deity. While these changes may have enhanced the acceptability of the text to Greek-speaking audiences, they also introduced interpretive layers that diverged from the Hebrew original.

The Influence of the Septuagint on Early Christianity

The Septuagint profoundly influenced the development of early Christianity. It served as the primary Bible for the early church, as most Christians in the first few centuries spoke Greek. The New Testament writers frequently quoted from the Septuagint, even when its wording differed from the Hebrew text. For instance, Matthew 1:23 cites Isaiah 7:14, using the Septuagint’s rendering of the Hebrew word “almah” as “virgin” (Greek: parthenos), which became foundational for the Christian doctrine of the virgin birth.

The theological vocabulary of the Septuagint also shaped Christian doctrine. Terms such as “Christ” (Greek: Christos), “covenant” (Greek: diatheke), and “righteousness” (Greek: dikaiosyne) were derived from the Septuagint and integrated into the language of the New Testament.

Jewish Reception and Rejection of the Septuagint

Initially, the Septuagint was embraced by the Jewish community as a valuable resource. However, as Christianity adopted the Septuagint as its Old Testament, tensions arose. By the end of the first century C.E., many Jews distanced themselves from the Septuagint, partly because it had become associated with Christian interpretations of Messianic prophecies. Rabbinic authorities eventually declared the translation flawed and instituted a fast day to lament its creation, equating it to the sin of the golden calf.

Textual Transmission and Recensions

The textual history of the Septuagint is complex. Early copies, made by hand, introduced variations over time. By the third century C.E., the text had become so corrupt that Origen undertook a massive project to restore it. His Hexapla, a six-column comparison of Hebrew and Greek texts, sought to clarify the relationship between the Septuagint and the Hebrew Scriptures. Subsequent recensions by Lucian and Hesychius in the fourth century further attempted to standardize the text.

Despite these efforts, the Septuagint continued to evolve, reflecting the diverse textual traditions of the communities that preserved it. Its influence extended beyond the Greek-speaking world, forming the basis for translations into Coptic, Syriac, Latin, and other languages.

The Enduring Legacy of the Septuagint

The Septuagint remains a critical text for biblical studies. It provides insights into the Hebrew Scriptures as they were understood in the Hellenistic period and offers a valuable witness to textual variations in ancient manuscripts. For the Greek Orthodox Church, the Septuagint continues to serve as the authoritative Old Testament.

From its origins as a practical solution for Greek-speaking Jews to its adoption and adaptation by early Christians, the Septuagint illustrates the dynamic interplay between culture, language, and theology in the transmission of the Scriptures. Its legacy endures as a testament to the enduring relevance of God’s Word across languages and generations.

The Weightiest and Primary Text

The primary weight of external evidence generally goes to the original language manuscripts, and the Codex Leningrad B 19A and the Aleppo Codex are almost always preferred. In Old Testament Textual Criticism, the Masoretic text is our starting point and should only be abandoned as a last resort. While it is true that the Masoretic Text is not perfect, there needs to be a heavy burden of proof if we are to go with an alternative reading. All of the evidence needs to be examined before concluding that a reading in the Masoretic Text is corrupt. The Septuagint continues to be very much important today and is used by textual scholars to help uncover copyists’ errors that might have crept into the Hebrew manuscripts either intentionally or unintentionally. However, it cannot do it alone without the support of other sources. There are a number of times when you might have the Syriac, Septuagint, Dead Sea Scrolls, Aramaic Targums, and the Vulgate that are at odds with the Masoretic Text; the preferred choice should not be the MT.

Initially, the Septuagint (LXX) was viewed by the Jews as inspired by God, equal to the Hebrew Scriptures. However, in the first century C.E., the Christians adopted the Septuagint in their churches. It was used by the Christians in their evangelism to make disciples and to debate the Jews on Jesus being the long-awaited Messiah. Soon, the Jews began to look at the Septuagint with suspicion. This resulted in the Jews of the second century C.E. abandoning the Septuagint and returning to the Hebrew Scriptures. This has proved to be beneficial for the textual scholar and translator. In the second century C.E., other Greek translations of the Septuagint were produced. We have, for example, LXX^Aq Aquila, LXX^Sym Symmachus, and LXX^Th Theodotion. The consonantal text of the Hebrew Scriptures became the standard text between the first and second centuries C.E. However, textual variants still continued until the Masoretes and the Masoretic text. However, scribes taking liberties by altering the text was no longer the case, as was true of the previous period of the Sopherim. The scribes who copied the Hebrew Scriptures from the time of Ezra down to the time of Jesus were called Sopherim, i.e., scribes.

From the 6th century C.E. to the 10th century C.E., we have the Masoretes, groups of extraordinary Jewish scribe-scholars. The Masoretes were very much concerned with the accurate transmission of each word, even each letter, of the text they were copying. Accuracy was of supreme importance; therefore, the Masoretes used the side margins of each page to inform others of deliberate or inadvertent changes in the text by past copyists. The Masoretes also use these marginal notes for other reasons as well, such as unusual word forms and combinations. They even marked how frequently they occurred within a book or even the whole Hebrew Old Testament. Of course, marginal spaces were very limited, so they used abbreviated code. They also formed a cross-checking tool where they would mark the middle word and letter of certain books. Their push for accuracy moved them to go so far as to count every letter of the Hebrew Old Testament.

In the Masoretic text, we find notes in the side margins, which are known as the Small Masora. There are also notes in the top margin, which are referred to as the Large Masora. Any other notes placed elsewhere within the text are called the Final Masora. The Masoretes used the notes in the top and bottom margins to record more extensive notes, comments concerning the abbreviated notes in the side margins. This enabled them to be able to cross-check their work. We must remember that there were no numbered verses at this time, and they had no Bible concordances. One might wonder how the Masoretes could refer to different parts of the Hebrew text to have an effective cross-checking system. They would list part of a parallel verse in the top and bottom margins to remind them of where the word(s) indicated were found. Because they were dealing with limited space, they often could only list one word to remind them where each parallel verse could be found. To have an effective cross-reference system by way of these marginal notes, the Masoretes would literally have to have memorized the entire Hebrew Bible.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).