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The transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures during the period from 135 CE to 1000 CE is a crucial phase in the history of biblical text. This period can be divided into two main parts: the transmission of the standard text by Jewish rabbis from 135 to 500 CE and the textual activities of the Masoretes from 500 to 1000 CE.

135 to 500 CE: The Age of the Talmud

The period from 135 to 500 CE corresponds roughly to what may be called the age of the Talmud. During this time, significant developments occurred in the textual transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures.

External Textual Features

The main changes during this period were “external” textual features that aided reading and understanding and helped in liturgical use. These features included the division of the text into verses, which occurred during this time. There were variations between Palestinian and Babylonian schools regarding the total number of verses in individual books and groups of books, such as the Pentateuch. However, the division of the OT into chapters, a feature necessary for modern readers, was of Christian origin and was introduced into Hebrew manuscripts around 1330 CE.

500 to 1000 CE: Masoretic Activity

It is in the textual phase following 500 CE that masoretic activity began. The Masoretes were careful transmitters of the text who created a system to preserve the oral reading tradition that had been passed down to them and to ensure that the text was copied with absolute accuracy. This activity was carried out in various places due to historical factors affecting the Jewish people.

Historical Context

Several interrelated historical factors influenced the activities of the Masoretes. The triumph of Christianity in Palestine was one of these factors, causing a large-scale emigration of Jewish textual scholars to Babylon in the second century CE. The study of the biblical text thrived in several academies in Babylon from the third to the tenth centuries. Meanwhile, the Islamic conquest of Palestine in 638 CE made possible a revival of Jewish textual work in Tiberias, a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The work of the Tiberian Masoretes would significantly impact the subsequent study and transmission of the OT text.

The Sopherim and the Masoretes

The men who copied the Hebrew Scriptures starting in the days of Ezra and continuing to the time of Jesus were called scribes, or Sopherim. Over time, they began to take liberties in making textual changes. Jesus condemned these would-be custodians of the Law for assuming powers that did not belong to them.

The scribal successors of the Sopherim in the centuries after Christ came to be known as the Masoretes. These scribes took note of the alterations made by the earlier Sopherim, recording them in the margin or at the end of the Hebrew text. These marginal notes came to be known as the Masora. The Masora listed the 15 extraordinary points of the Sopherim, namely, 15 words or phrases in the Hebrew text that had been marked by dots or strokes. Some of these extraordinary points do not affect the English translation or the interpretation, but others do and are of importance. The Sopherim allowed their superstitious fear of pronouncing the name Jehovah to ensnare them into altering it to read Adho·nai (Lord) at 134 places and to read Elo·him (God) in some instances. The Masora lists these changes. The Sopherim or early scribes are also charged with making at least 18 emendations (corrections), according to a note in the Masora, though there evidently were even more. These emendations were likely made with good intentions because the original passage appeared to show either irreverence for God or disrespect for his earthly representatives.

The Consonantal Text

The Hebrew alphabet is made up of 22 consonants, with no vowels. Originally, the reader had to supply the vowel sounds from his knowledge of the language. Hebrew writing was like an abbreviated script. Even in modern English, there are many standard abbreviations that people use in which only consonants appear. For example, there is “ltd.” as an abbreviation for “limited.” Similarly, the Hebrew language comprised a series of words made up only of consonants. Thus, by “consonantal text” is meant the Hebrew text without any vowel markings. The consonantal text of the Hebrew manuscripts became fixed in form between the first and second centuries CE, although manuscripts with variant texts continued to circulate for some time. Alterations were no longer made, unlike the previous period of the Sopherim.

The Masoretic Text

In the second half of the first millennium CE, the Masoretes (Hebrew, ba·ʽalehʹ ham·ma·soh·rahʹ, meaning “the Masters of Tradition”) established a system of vowel points and accent marks. These served as a written aid in the reading and pronouncing of vowel sounds, whereas previously, the pronunciation had been handed down by oral tradition. The Masoretes made no changes whatsoever in the texts that they transmitted but recorded marginal notes in the Masora as they saw fit. They exercised great care to take no textual liberties. Additionally, in their Masora, they drew attention to textual peculiarities and gave corrected readings they considered necessary.

Three schools of Masoretes were engaged in the development of the vocalizing and accent marking of the consonantal text, namely, the Babylonian, Palestinian, and Tiberian. The Hebrew text now presented in printed editions of the Hebrew Bible is known as the Masoretic text and uses the system devised by the Tiberian school. This system was developed by the Masoretes of Tiberias, a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Footnotes in the Updated American Standard Version refer many times to the Masoretic text (under the symbol MT) and to its marginal notes, the Masora (under the symbol MTmargin).

The Palestinian school placed the vowel signs above the consonants. Only a small number of such manuscripts came down to us, showing that this system of vocalization was imperfect. The Babylonian system of vowel pointing was likewise supralinear. A manuscript exhibiting the Babylonian pointing is the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets of 916 CE, preserved in the Leningrad Public Library, USSR. This codex contains Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the “minor” prophets, with marginal notes (Masora). Scholars have eagerly examined this manuscript and compared it with the Tiberian text. Although it uses the supralinear system of vocalization, it, in fact, follows the Tiberian text as regards the consonantal text and its vowels and Masora. The British Museum has a copy of the Babylonian text of the Pentateuch, which has been found to be substantially in agreement with the Tiberian text.

Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947, an exciting new chapter in Hebrew manuscript history began. In a cave at Wadi Qumran (Nahal Qumeran), in the area of the Dead Sea, the first Isaiah scroll, together with other Biblical and non-Biblical scrolls, was discovered. Shortly thereafter, a complete photostatic copy of this well-preserved Isaiah scroll (1QIsa) was published for scholars to study. It is believed to date toward the end of the second century BCE. Here, indeed, was an incredible find—a Hebrew manuscript about a thousand years older than the oldest existing manuscript of the recognized Masoretic text of Isaiah! Other caves in Qumran surrendered fragments of over 170 scrolls representing parts of all books of the Hebrew Scriptures except Esther. Studies of such scrolls are still in progress.

One scholar reports that his investigation of the lengthy Psalm 119 in one important Dead Sea Scroll of the Psalms (11QPsa) shows it to be in almost complete verbal agreement with the Masoretic text of Psalm 119. Regarding the Psalms Scroll, Professor J. A. Sanders noted: “Most of [the variants] are orthographic and important only to those scholars who are interested in clues to the pronunciation of Hebrew in antiquity, and such matters.” Other examples of these remarkable ancient manuscripts indicate no great variations in most cases. The Isaiah scroll itself, though it shows some differences in spelling and in grammatical construction, does not vary as to doctrinal points. This published Isaiah scroll was examined in terms of its variations in the preparation of the updated American Standard Version, and references are made to it.

Major Lines of Transmission

The major lines of transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures have now been discussed. Principally, these are the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aramaic Targums, the Greek Septuagint, the Tiberian Hebrew text, the Palestinian Hebrew text, the Babylonian Hebrew text, and the Hebrew text of the Dead Sea Scrolls. As a result of study and comparison of these texts, we are assured that the Hebrew Scriptures have come down to us today substantially in the form in which inspired servants of God first recorded them.

The Role of the Masoretes

The Masoretes played a crucial role in the preservation and transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures. Their meticulous work ensured the accuracy of the text, and their system of vowel points and accent marks provided a reliable guide for reading and pronunciation. The Masoretic text, developed by the Tiberian school, became the standard for printed editions of the Hebrew Bible.

The Development and Influence of the Masoretic Tradition

The Masoretic Text (MT) is the result of a long and meticulous process of textual transmission. The Masoretes, operating primarily between the 6th and 10th centuries CE, developed a complex system to preserve the Hebrew Scriptures with great precision. Their efforts included the standardization of the consonantal text, the introduction of vowel points, and the creation of extensive marginal notes known as the Masora.

Vowel Points and Accent Marks

One of the most significant contributions of the Masoretes was the development of a system of vowel points and accent marks. Prior to this innovation, the Hebrew text consisted only of consonants, and the correct pronunciation of words was preserved through oral tradition. The introduction of vowel points ensured that the pronunciation would be accurately transmitted along with the written text.

The Tiberian System

The most widely adopted system of vowel points was developed by the Tiberian Masoretes. This system, which places vowel signs below and sometimes above the consonants, became the standard for Hebrew manuscripts. The Tiberian vocalization system is known for its accuracy and thoroughness, providing not only vowels but also accent marks to indicate stress and intonation in reading.

The Marginal Masora

The Masora, a collection of marginal notes, is another critical aspect of the Masoretic tradition. These notes recorded textual variants, counting of letters and words, and other features of the text that were important for its transmission. The Masora includes the Masora Parva (small Masora), which appears in the margins of the text, and the Masora Magna (large Masora), which often appears at the top and bottom of the page. These notes ensured that scribes would not inadvertently alter the text and provided a means of checking for accuracy.

The Standardization of the Text

By the end of the first millennium CE, the text of the Hebrew Scriptures had become standardized. This standardization was largely due to the efforts of the Masoretes, whose work ensured that the text was copied accurately and consistently. The MT became the authoritative text for Judaism, and its influence extends to the present day.

Comparison with Other Textual Traditions

The Masoretic Text is one of several textual traditions that have preserved the Hebrew Scriptures. Other important traditions include the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Greek Septuagint, and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Each of these traditions offers valuable insights into the history and transmission of the biblical text.

The Samaritan Pentateuch

The Samaritan Pentateuch is the version of the Torah used by the Samaritan community. It shows some significant differences from the Masoretic Text, reflecting the unique theological perspectives of the Samaritans. Despite these differences, the Samaritan Pentateuch often aligns closely with the Septuagint and provides an important witness to the textual history of the Pentateuch.

The Greek Septuagint

The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, produced between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. It reflects a different Hebrew textual tradition from the MT and contains many variants that are not found in the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint was widely used in the early Christian church and influenced the development of the Old Testament in the Christian tradition.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered at Qumran, include some of the oldest known manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures. These texts date from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE and show a variety of textual forms, some of which align with the Masoretic Text, while others resemble the Septuagint or the Samaritan Pentateuch. The Scrolls provide crucial evidence for understanding the textual diversity and development of the Hebrew Scriptures.

The Preservation and Transmission of the Text

The meticulous work of the Masoretes ensured the preservation and transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures. Their system of vowel points and accent marks, combined with the detailed notes in the Masora, provided a reliable means of maintaining the accuracy of the text. The standardization of the text by the Masoretes meant that subsequent generations of scribes had a precise model to follow, reducing the likelihood of errors and variations.

The Role of Manuscripts and Codices

During the period from 135 CE to 1000 CE, the Hebrew Scriptures were transmitted primarily through handwritten manuscripts. These manuscripts, written on materials such as parchment and vellum, were carefully copied by scribes who followed strict guidelines to ensure accuracy. The transition from scrolls to codices (book form) also occurred during this time, allowing for easier handling and reference.

Important Manuscripts

Several important manuscripts from this period provide insight into the transmission of the Hebrew text:

The Aleppo Codex: Considered one of the most accurate Masoretic manuscripts, the Aleppo Codex was produced in the 10th century CE. It includes the entire Hebrew Bible with Masoretic notes and is highly valued for its precision.
The Leningrad Codex: The oldest complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, the Leningrad Codex dates to 1008 CE. It is the primary source for modern printed editions of the Hebrew Bible and includes extensive Masoretic notes.
The Cairo Geniza: A collection of Jewish manuscript fragments found in the Geniza (storage room) of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Cairo. These fragments, dating from the 9th to the 19th centuries, include many biblical texts and provide valuable information about the transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures.

The Impact of the Masoretic Text

The Masoretic Text has had a profound impact on the study and understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its precision and reliability have made it the foundation for Jewish and Christian biblical scholarship. Modern translations of the Old Testament, including the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) and the Updated American Standard Version (UASV), rely heavily on the Masoretic Text.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Conclusion on the Original Reading

Based on the documentary method and the weight given to the Masoretic Text, the original reading of the Hebrew Scriptures likely aligns closely with the proto-MT found among the Qumran scrolls. The textual evidence from Qumran, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint provides a comprehensive picture of the Hebrew text’s transmission and highlights the variations and corrections made by scribes over centuries. These practices, combined with the eventual standardization of the MT, underscore the careful preservation and transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures.

The Influence of Historical and Cultural Context

The historical and cultural context of the Jewish communities during this period played a significant role in the transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures. The triumph of Christianity in Palestine, the Islamic conquest, and the establishment of Jewish academies in Babylon all influenced the development and preservation of the text.

The Importance of Textual Criticism

Textual criticism remains a vital field of study for understanding the transmission and preservation of the Hebrew Scriptures. By examining the various textual traditions and comparing manuscripts, scholars can reconstruct the history of the text and identify the most reliable readings. The work of the Masoretes and the evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Septuagint, and other sources provide essential tools for this critical work.

The Future of Textual Studies

The ongoing discovery of ancient manuscripts and the development of new technologies continue to enhance our understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures’ transmission. Digital imaging and other advancements allow for more detailed analysis of manuscripts, leading to new insights and refinements in textual criticism.

Conclusion on the Original Reading

Bibliography

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———. The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Biblical Studies. Rev. ed. 1961. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980.
———. “The Contribution of the Qumran Discoveries to the Study of the Biblical Text.” Israel Exploration Journal 16 (1966): 81-95. Later published in Frank M. Cross and Shemaryahu Talmon, Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text, 93-94.
Demsky, Aaron, and Meir Bar-Ilan. “Writing in Ancient Israel and Early Judaism.” In Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading & Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism & Early Christianity, edited by Martin Jan Mulder, 1-38. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004.
Ginsburg, Christian D. Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible. London: Trinitarian Bible Society, 1897.
Grayzel, Solomon. A History of the Jews. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1968.
Haran, Menahem. “Book-Scrolls in Israel in Pre-exilic Times.” Journal of Semitic Studies 33 (1982): 161-173.
Margolis, Max L., and Alexander Marx. A History of the Jewish People. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1934.
Sanders, J. A. The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967.
Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. 3rd edition. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2012.
———. “Correction Procedures in the Texts from the Judean Desert.” In The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls: Technological Innovations, New Texts, and Reformulated Issues, edited by Donald W. Parry and Eugene Ulrich, 236-258. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
Würthwein, Ernst. The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica. Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes. 3rd ed. Rev. and exp. Alexander A. Fischer. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).