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Explore the indispensable role of Ashurbanipal’s ancient library in understanding the Old Testament. From linguistic comparisons to theological implications, learn how these archives serve as a critical resource in Old Testament scholarship.

Location: Nineveh, capital of Assyria – Established 7th century BCE Size: over 30,000 cuneiform tablets

Asenappar – A Reference to Ashurbanipal in the Hebrew Bible

The name “Asenappar” appears in the biblical book of Ezra, specifically in Ezra 4:10, in a section recorded in the Aramaic language. This name is generally understood as a clipped form or variant of “Ashurbanipal,” the Assyrian king. The reason for the altered rendering likely stems from the phonetic limitations of the Persian language, which lacks the letter “l” and therefore substitutes it with “r.” This kind of language adaptation isn’t uncommon when names or terms migrate from one linguistic context to another.

Historical Context: The Relationship to Elam and Samaria

According to the biblical account, the inhabitants of Susa, the capital of Elam, were relocated to Samaria by Asenappar (Ezra 4:10). This is historically corroborated by the actions of Ashurbanipal, who was the only Assyrian king with the military and political leverage to enact such a large-scale relocation of people from Elam. This kind of action aligns with the broader Assyrian policy of moving conquered peoples to different regions, partly as a strategy to prevent uprisings.

Familial and Political Background: Ashurbanipal’s Lineage and Reign

Ashurbanipal was the son of Esar-haddon and the grandson of Sennacherib, two formidable Assyrian kings in their own right. Ashurbanipal was a contemporary of King Manasseh of Judah, who ruled from 697 B.C.E. to 642 B.C.E. This contemporaneity is supported by archaeological findings: Manasseh’s name appears on a prism of Ashurbanipal that lists around 20 kings who were tributaries to the Assyrian empire.

Upon his father’s death, Ashurbanipal ascended to the Assyrian throne, while his brother, Shamash-shum-u-kin, became the king of Babylon. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire achieved unprecedented territorial and political heights.

Military Expeditions and Conflicts

Ashurbanipal was not just a bookish king but a formidable military leader as well. He quelled an uprising in Egypt and conquered the city of Thebes, known as No-amon in the Hebrew Scriptures (compare Nahum 3:8-10). Later, he was embroiled in a conflict with his brother, the king of Babylon. Upon defeating him, Ashurbanipal laid waste to Susa, the capital of Elam. This particular conquest provides the historical foundation for identifying him as the “Asenappar” mentioned in Ezra 4:9–10.

Tablet containing part of the Epic of Gilgamesh (Tablet 11 depicting the Deluge), now part of the holdings of the British Museum

The Scholar-King: Ashurbanipal’s Literary Interests

Ashurbanipal stands out among Assyrian monarchs for his scholarly inclinations. His library at Nineveh, discovered beginning in 1845 C.E., contains an estimated 30,000 clay tablets covering an array of subjects. These texts range from religious hymns, prayers, and incantations to more academic treatises on history, geography, astronomy, and medicine. Additionally, the library held various types of business documents, including contracts, sales agreements, and loan arrangements. This collection serves as an indispensable window into Assyrian culture and thought, making it highly relevant for scholars in the fields of Assyriology and Old Testament studies.

Scholarly Importance and Conclusion

The convergence of biblical and extra-biblical data concerning Ashurbanipal/Asenappar enriches our understanding of the geopolitical and cultural landscape of the ancient Near East during the time when the Hebrew Bible was being composed. Moreover, the wealth of texts from Ashurbanipal’s library offers significant linguistic and historical contexts for interpreting the Old Testament. Understanding Ashurbanipal’s reign, his military and scholarly pursuits, and his influence on populations like those in Elam and Samaria contributes to a nuanced and historically grounded approach to Old Testament studies.

When diving into the complex world of Old Testament Textual Criticism, a crucial component often overlooked is the context in which ancient texts were kept, shared, and preserved. The libraries of antiquity were more than just rooms filled with clay tablets or scrolls; they were repositories of culture, knowledge, and religious beliefs. Among the most famous of these ancient libraries is that of Ashurbanipal, a powerful Assyrian king who reigned in the 7th century B.C.E. The significance of the Archives of Ashurbanipal for understanding the Old Testament can hardly be overstated.

Ashurbanipal and His Library: A Historical Overview

Ashurbanipal was a unique ruler among his contemporaries. Not only was he a military conqueror but also an intellectual, amassing one of the greatest libraries in the ancient Near East. Situated in Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire, Ashurbanipal’s library contained a collection of texts that went far beyond mere administrative records. The library was a treasure trove of literature, scientific texts, religious documents, and more. It was meticulously organized and had a scribe specifically tasked with the preservation and copying of its contents. This systematic approach to collecting texts provides us with a lens to view the mindset of a civilization that was in some ways contemporaneous with the authors of the Old Testament.

Tablet of synonyms. British Museum reference K.4375

Ashurbanipal Library Project

In partnership with the University of Mosul and supported by the Townley group, the British Museum initiated an ambitious project in 2002 to comprehensively document the artifacts of Ashurbanipal’s ancient library. This project aims to provide a robust catalogue of the library, replete with textual descriptions and high-quality visual representations. The catalogue includes sign-transliterations, hand-drawn copies, professional translations, and high-resolution digital images.

Multi-Stage Endeavor: The Evolution of the Project

This mammoth task was broken down into three distinct phases, each with its published findings. The first two phases came to fruition in 2003 and 2004, respectively, while the third phase was completed in 2014. Dr. Jeanette C. Fincke, a scholar with extensive background in ancient oriental studies, Hittitology, and Egyptology from the University of Hamburg, played a pivotal role during the first two stages.

In the initial phase, Dr. Fincke meticulously compiled a definitive list of 3,500 tablets, all written in Babylonian scripts. The second stage saw her amassing several astrological texts originating from Nineveh.

For the third and final phase, the late professor Riekel Borger was initially involved until his untimely passing in December 2010. The project was then completed with support from the Andrew Mellon Foundation from 2009 to 2013, led by Jon Taylor. This final phase produced high-resolution digital imagery of all library tablets. Remarkably, each image was crafted from 14 different shots, facilitating a two-dimensional representation that closely approximates the tablets’ three-dimensional essence. These images are now accessible to the public through the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative website and the British Museum Collections online portal.

Current Focus and Ongoing Contributions

As of 2020, the project has zeroed in on two primary avenues of research. The first aims to reconstruct the medical texts found within the cataloged tablets. The second is an analytical exercise that leverages the scribes’ notations at the bottom of each tablet to gauge the overall size and breadth of the library collection.

The project continues to be enriched through the collaborative contributions of several institutions and initiatives, such as the State Archives of Assyria, the Cuneiform Commentaries Project, the Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Lexical Texts, and the Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. This collaborative approach has enhanced the depth and scope of the catalogue, which is still undergoing updates.

By harnessing both scholarly expertise and advanced technological tools, the Ashurbanipal Library Project represents a monumental effort in understanding one of antiquity’s most treasured repositories of knowledge. Its contributions significantly advance our comprehension of the ancient Near East and provide invaluable context for scholars in the fields of Assyriology and Old Testament studies.

“Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa” with astrological forecasts. British Museum reference K.160

Types of Texts in Ashurbanipal’s Library

The library did not restrict itself to Assyrian works but collected texts from across the ancient Near East, including Babylonia, Sumeria, and other locales. Among the works found in this library were epics, hymns, omens, legal codes, and religious texts. Some of these texts, like the Epic of Gilgamesh, parallel narratives found in the Old Testament.

These different categories of texts were critical for Ashurbanipal and his scholars, but they also hold enormous significance for our understanding of the Old Testament. For instance, the religious documents found in the library can offer insights into the broader religious milieu of the time, shedding light on practices and beliefs that were either shared or contested by the Hebrew Bible’s authors.

Prism of Sennacherib, containing records of his military campaigns, culminating with Babylon’s destruction. British Museum BM 91032.

The Ashurbanipal Library: A Treasure Trove of Ancient Knowledge

Ashurbanipal: The Scholar-King

Ashurbanipal was not just a formidable military leader but also an intellectual powerhouse. Fluent in Akkadian and Sumerian, he ardently collected texts and tablets, sending emissaries across Mesopotamia to gather every written work. Scholars were employed to copy texts, especially from Babylonian sources. War spoils and threats bolstered his library, as he sought to amass vital rituals and incantations that fortified his rule.

Extent and Composition of the Collection

The library originally contained approximately 30,000 tablets and writing boards, although a large portion is fragmented. Evidence suggests that at the time of its destruction, the library had nearly 2,000 tablets and 300 writing boards. The library was diverse, covering legislation, correspondence, declarations, and financial records. Additionally, it housed texts on divinations, omens, hymns, medicine, astronomy, and literature, including epics and myths.

Classifying the Texts

The texts were categorized into two broad groups: literary compositions and legal documents. The former encompasses divination, religious, lexical, medical, mathematical, and historical texts. The legal documents include letters, contracts, and administrative texts. Divination texts form a significant subset within the literary compositions. Prominent works like the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Enûma Eliš were among the treasures of this library.

The Writing Medium and Organization

The texts were mainly written in Akkadian, employing the cuneiform script. Some were also composed in Neo-Babylonian and Assyrian scripts. The tablets came in different shapes, each serving a specific purpose. Four-sided tablets dealt with finances, while round tablets focused on agriculture. They were organized by subject and stored in dedicated rooms, easily identified by colored marks or brief written descriptions.

The Fate of the Library

The library met a tragic end when Nineveh was razed in 612 BCE. Interestingly, the fire that consumed the palace baked the clay tablets, inadvertently preserving them. While clay tablets survived, organic materials like wax boards were lost. The British Museum’s Ashurbanipal Library Project aims to update the catalog, indicating that the library likely contained around 10,000 texts in all forms, including leather scrolls and wax boards, that offered a wider spectrum of knowledge.

By gathering, organizing, and preserving a vast range of texts, Ashurbanipal’s library stands as a monumental legacy, offering scholars valuable insights into ancient Mesopotamian culture, law, and science. The library itself is a testament to the intellectual and administrative prowess of Ashurbanipal, showing how one man’s passion for knowledge could yield an invaluable resource that continues to inform and inspire researchers today.

The 10-faced Rassam cylinder of Ashurbanipal, British Museum.

Preservation and Discovery

Ashurbanipal’s library was discovered largely intact, thanks to the clay medium of the tablets, which were preserved even as the building structures crumbled around them. The library’s discovery in the 19th century was a watershed moment for the field of Assyriology and had ripple effects on Old Testament scholarship.

The manner in which these texts were stored, usually with labels and systematic organization, shows us that the ancient Near East had an advanced form of record-keeping and textual preservation. These methods could be considered a precursor to the careful scribal techniques employed by the Masoretes, Jewish scribes who were later responsible for the preservation of the Hebrew Bible.

The Library’s Impact on Old Testament Scholarship

When we closely examine the texts from Ashurbanipal’s library, several areas of impact on Old Testament scholarship become evident.

Linguistic Comparisons

Firstly, the language of these texts can provide significant insights. The Assyrian dialect of Akkadian was similar in many ways to biblical Hebrew. Linguistic comparisons can therefore be made that help scholars understand the nuances of Hebrew words and phrases in the Old Testament.

Literary Context

Secondly, the literary genres and styles found in the library offer a broader context for interpreting Old Testament literature. For instance, understanding the common Near Eastern practice of writing wisdom literature can help us better understand books like Proverbs and Job.

Religious and Cultural Similarities

Thirdly, Ashurbanipal’s library reveals a wealth of religious beliefs and practices that were widespread in the ancient Near East. While the people of Israel were called by Jehovah to be set apart, they were still part of this larger cultural and religious landscape. The texts found in Ashurbanipal’s library can help us delineate what was unique to Israelite religion and what was part of the broader religious culture.

Theological Ramifications

Lastly, this library can have subtle but profound implications for our understanding of Old Testament theology. For example, texts on divine kingship from Ashurbanipal’s library can inform our understanding of how Israelites viewed their own kings as anointed by Jehovah and how they differentiated their beliefs from surrounding cultures.

Cautionary Notes: Discernment in Utilizing Extra-Biblical Texts

While the texts of Ashurbanipal’s library offer an invaluable resource for understanding the Old Testament, we must exercise caution. These texts are not inspired Scripture. They are beneficial for cultural, historical, and linguistic context, but they should never supersede or fundamentally alter our understanding of the inerrant Word of God.

The Archives of Ashurbanipal as a Resource for Old Testament Study

The Archives of Ashurbanipal are a treasure not just for Assyriologists but also for those deeply engaged in the study of the Old Testament. These texts offer a robust understanding of the historical context in which the Old Testament was written. They shed light on aspects like language, literature, religious practices, and even theological understandings of the time.

Like a complex puzzle, the ancient texts of the Near East and the Old Testament intersect at multiple points. And while the archives of Ashurbanipal may not be part of the canon of Scripture, they undoubtedly serve as a rich resource, aiding us in our endeavor to better understand the Word of God in its historical context. As we continue to delve into the intricacies of Old Testament Textual Criticism, the archives of this ancient Assyrian library serve as a vital tool, sharpening our insights and refining our interpretations.

Rethinking the Reliability: A Solid Historical Account or a Mosaic of Guesswork?

When it comes to aligning biblical history with Babylonian records, the initial prospects appear promising. Yet, as one looks beyond this auspicious beginning, one finds a glaring lack of information from reliable Babylonian sources. For instance, Nebuchadnezzar’s final thirty-three years in rule are enigmatic, lacking any Babylonian record that corresponds with the biblical account of Jerusalem’s destruction in his eighteenth regnal year (or nineteenth, counting from his ascension). This event is documented solely in the Bible (Jeremiah 52:29; 2 Kings 25:8-10).

Similarly, scant information is available concerning Nebuchadnezzar’s son, Amel-Marduk (also known as Evil-merodach in 2 Kings 25:27-28). Only a few tablets from his second year of rule have been discovered, and these offer minimal details about his reign. As for Neriglissar, Amel-Marduk’s presumed successor, a solitary historical tablet dated to his third year of rule exists.

What is considered to be a commemorative tablet, possibly dedicated to either the mother or grandmother of Nabonidus, offers some chronological data for this time period. However, much of the text is damaged, leaving a gaping hole that historians attempt to fill through educated guesses and conjecture. Essentially, the tablet provides a fragmented timeline, mentioning only 43 years of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign and 4 years for Neriglissar, without necessarily limiting his rule to those years.

Modern attempts at restoring the missing, damaged, or illegible portions:

“[During the time from Ashurbanipal], the king of Assyria, [in] whose [rule] I was born—(to wit): [21 years] under Ashurbanipal, [4 years under Ashur]etillu-ilani, his son, [21 years under Nabopola]ssar, 43 years under Nebuchadnezzar, [2 years under Ewil-Merodach], 4 years under Neriglissar, [in summa 95 yea]rs, [the god was away] till Sin, the king of the gods, [remembered the temple] . . . of his [great] godhead, his clouded face [shone up], [and he listened] to my prayers, [forgot] the angry command [which he had given, and decided to return t]o the temple é-hul-hul, the temple, [the mansion,] his heart’s delight. [With regard to his impending return to] the [temp]le, Sin, the king of [the gods, said (to me)]: ‘Nabonidus, the king of Babylon, the son [of my womb] [shall] make [me] en[ter/sit down (again)] in (to) the temple é-hul-hul!’ I care[fully] obeyed the orders which [Sin], the king of the gods, had pronounced (and therefore) I did see myself (how) Nabonidus, the king of Babylon, the offspring of my womb, reinstalled completely the forgotten rites of Sin, . . . ”

Farther along in the text Nabonidus’ mother (or grandmother) is represented as crediting Sin with granting her long life “from the time of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, to the 6th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, the son of my womb, (that is) for 104 happy years, . . . ”—Pritchard’s Ancient Near Eastern Texts, pages 311, 312.

Furthermore, modern historians’ attempts to fill in the gaps using Ptolemy’s canon do not perfectly align with the “104 happy years” mentioned in the fragmented tablet. This raises questions about the reliability of this Babylonian record for constructing a precise chronology of the Neo-Babylonian period.

So, while the tablet may seem to offer insights into the era’s timeline, it’s more like a jigsaw puzzle with many missing pieces rather than a complete, reliable source. Consequently, these fragmentary records offer only a sketchy framework for understanding the chronology of the Neo-Babylonian period, emphasizing the uniqueness of the Bible as a vital, perhaps sole, source of authentic historical information.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).