Shared Features of Early Jewish and Christian Manuscripts

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Introduction: A Converging Textual Heritage

Both Jewish and early Christian communities were profoundly text-centered, with sacred writings forming the foundation for religious teaching, communal identity, and spiritual life. Because Christianity emerged from first-century Judaism, it is no surprise that early Christian manuscript practices exhibit continuity with Jewish scribal traditions. These shared features are evident not only in the content but also in the form, structure, and transmission methods of the manuscripts themselves. The similarities between Jewish and Christian manuscripts—especially from the late Second Temple period through the fourth century C.E.—reflect a common cultural, linguistic, and religious environment shaped by the broader Greco-Roman world and more specifically by the textual traditions preserved in Jewish synagogue life and early Christian house-church gatherings.

This article explores these shared features in depth, focusing on materials, formats, scripts, use of nomina sacra, textual division practices, and the religious functions of the manuscripts. Special attention is given to the Jewish roots of Christian scribal culture, the transitional elements between the synagogue and the church, and the distinctives that developed over time.

Early Christian Manuscripts and the Influence of Jewish Scriptoral Practices

Some of the earliest Christian manuscripts reveal probable influences from established Jewish scriptoral conventions. This is both expected and historically logical given the deep roots of Christianity within first-century Judaism. If a demonstrable link can be substantiated between Jewish scribal habits and the physical features of early Christian manuscripts, it becomes plausible that early Christian writing centers—whether formal or informal—may have functioned, at least in part, as carryovers from Jewish scriptoria. This cultural and practical inheritance could have shaped the formation of early Christian textual production before distinctive Christian manuscript practices fully emerged.

One of the shared features between early Jewish and Christian manuscripts is the use of enlarged letters at the beginning of lines, particularly to mark a new phrase or section. This has often been attributed to influence from contemporary documentary writing (such as legal or commercial documents), but recent scholarly comparisons challenge that assumption and lean toward Jewish textual influence as a more likely source.

Peter Parsons, in comparing the Greek Minor Prophets Scrolls from Nahal Hever with early Christian manuscripts, made the following key observation:

“Most of this material [in the Greek Minor Prophets] is documentary; but the comparison is rather appropriate, since the use of enlarged initials at line beginning … and phrase beginning … and (set out in the margin) to mark a new section … gives this manuscript a documentary look. The fact is itself remarkable. Early Christian books show the same characteristic; copies of the Greek classics do not. It has therefore been tempting to argue that the texts of the Early Church stood closer to the world of business than to that of literature, and to draw conclusions about the social milieu in which the texts circulated or the esteem in which they were held. Now we see the same thing in a Jewish manuscript of a pre-Christian date. This may suggest that the Christians inherited the practise, rather than inventing it.”

This evidence undercuts the simplistic conclusion that early Christian manuscripts adopted these features from Roman bureaucratic culture. Instead, it suggests that early Christian scribes adapted Jewish visual and structural conventions—possibly inherited through scribes already trained in synagogue contexts or through Greek-speaking Jewish Christians accustomed to Septuagint manuscripts.

C. H. Roberts, in his own analysis of the Greek Minor Prophets scrolls, shared a similar view:

“Documentary practice may not have been the only influence on Christian scribes.” He further noted that in the Nahal Hever scrolls, the “enlarged letter, preceded by a small blank space, [marked] the beginning of a new phrase, while verses are marked off by larger spaces.”

These stylistic devices—though subtle—carry significance for the history of the New Testament text’s physical form. They point to a heritage of formatting practice, likely adapted for oral reading and public exposition, as was common in synagogue worship and later house-church gatherings.

This enlarged-initial feature can be seen across a variety of Christian Old Testament manuscripts in Greek, such as those in the Chester Beatty papyri:

Codex V (Genesis)
Codex VI (Numbers–Deuteronomy)
Codex VII (Isaiah)
Codex VIII (Jeremiah)
Codex X (Daniel)

This same feature also appears in a number of early New Testament papyri, including but not limited to:

P13 (Hebrews, somewhat)
P23 (James)
P32 (Titus)
P46 (Pauline Epistles, partially)
P53 (Matthew, Acts)
P70 (Matthew)
P72 (1 Peter, Jude)
P78 (Jude)
P90 (John)
P109 (John)

Though not uniformly applied across all manuscripts, this pattern is frequent enough to suggest a deliberate formatting choice rooted in precedent rather than accident or simple utility.

A second possible influence from Jewish manuscript tradition is the Christian invention of the nomen sacrum for κύριος (Lord). In Jewish copies of the Septuagint, particularly among the Qumran scrolls and other Jewish-Greek texts, the divine name (JHVH) was sometimes preserved in Paleo-Hebrew or Hebrew square script within the Greek text, or it was avoided altogether by substituting Kyrios (Lord) or by leaving a blank space.

In producing their own copies of the Greek Old Testament, early Christian scribes had to confront this issue. Instead of writing the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew letters—a practice which would be unreadable or uncomfortable for many Gentile Christians—they created a sacred abbreviation: ΚΣ (Kyrios) with a supralinear stroke to signify its sanctity. This innovation maintained the theological distinction of the divine title while adjusting it for a Christian reading context.

As argued by several scholars, including those advocating the Jewish-Christian continuity in scribal customs, this adaptation of Jewish reverential treatment of the divine name into a Greek Christian nomen sacrum system shows early Christian manuscripts did not emerge ex nihilo, but were crafted within a framework of Jewish liturgical, scribal, and textual norms—recontextualized for the expanding Gentile mission of the church.

Thus, the evidence suggests that early Christian manuscript culture, particularly in its first century to early third-century phase, should be understood not as a sharp departure from Jewish practice but as a development within it, appropriating certain scribal forms while redirecting them to new covenant content. This inheritance contributed significantly to the shape and style of the earliest witnesses to the New Testament text.

Material Similarities: Papyrus, Parchment, and Scrolls

The earliest Jewish manuscripts—such as those found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (dating from the third century B.C.E. to the first century C.E.)—were almost exclusively written on scrolls made from papyrus or parchment. These materials were standard across the Greco-Roman world. Papyrus, made from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, was the more common writing material in Egypt and surrounding regions. Parchment, prepared from animal skins, was more expensive but more durable and became dominant in later centuries.

Early Christian manuscripts likewise began on papyrus, and scrolls were initially used. However, by the late first and early second century C.E., Christians began to prefer the codex format—a feature that distinguished them from their Jewish counterparts. While Jewish communities retained the scroll for liturgical and communal readings, Christians adopted the codex almost universally by the third century C.E. This marked shift suggests a conscious divergence in manuscript culture, likely motivated by the codex’s portability, ease of reference, and suitability for private study and missionary work. Yet the material base—papyrus and parchment—remained the same across both communities.

Scripts and Letter Forms: Square and Documentary Hands

Another area of convergence lies in the scripts employed by Jewish and Christian scribes. Jewish manuscripts from Qumran exhibit two dominant forms: the Jewish square script, used for biblical scrolls, and the semi-cursive and cursive documentary hands, used for everyday writing. These letter forms follow the conventions of late Hebrew and Aramaic paleography.

Early Christian manuscripts often employed documentary-style Greek scripts, similar to those used in legal and commercial documents. This “documentary hand” was common in literary papyri of the Hellenistic and Roman periods and was not specific to Christianity. The reformed documentary hand—a more formalized and consistent style—began appearing in Christian manuscripts by the third century. Though Greek was the primary language, Christians also produced Coptic, Latin, and Syriac manuscripts, each using its respective script traditions but often imitating Jewish literary conventions.

Thus, the shared practice of adapting common script types for sacred writing reflects the broader scribal culture of the eastern Mediterranean world. However, while Jewish scribes maintained a relatively rigid distinction between sacred and secular script forms, early Christian scribes seem to have adapted whatever script was functional and available, provided the result was legible and preserved the sanctity of the text.

Use of Nomina Sacra: A Distinctive Christian Inheritance from Jewish Reverence

One of the most distinctive features of early Christian manuscripts is the use of nomina sacra—abbreviated forms of divine names and titles such as God (θεός, ΘΣ), Jesus (Ἰησοῦς, ΙΣ), Christ (Χριστός, ΧΣ), Lord (Κύριος, ΚΣ), and Spirit (Πνεῦμα, ΠΝΑ). These were abbreviated with a horizontal overline, indicating reverence and sacred status. For example, the word for God, Theos, appears as ΘΣ, with a supralinear stroke.

While nomina sacra are a uniquely Christian development, they likely arose from Jewish reverence for the divine name. In Jewish scribal practice, the Tetragrammaton (JHVH) was often treated with special care. In some Greek Septuagint manuscripts, the divine name is written in Hebrew characters or in Paleo-Hebrew script even within Greek texts. In others, it is transliterated or substituted with Kyrios (Lord). These practices underscore the Jewish reluctance to pronounce or alter the sacred name.

The Christian use of nomina sacra appears to be a direct continuation and adaptation of this Jewish reverential treatment of sacred names. Yet the Christian innovation extended the practice to other terms associated with Christological identity, thereby embedding theology into orthographic convention. The use of nomina sacra also served a practical function in the codex format by saving space.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Textual Division and Paragraphing Practices

Both Jewish and Christian manuscripts employed textual division practices to organize sacred texts. In Jewish scrolls, divisions such as the parashah (open and closed paragraph breaks) marked transitions in the text. These were visually signaled by spacing or indentation and were used in Torah scrolls to structure readings.

In early Christian manuscripts, paragraph markers such as ekthesis (projecting the first letter of a paragraph into the left margin), spacing, and punctuation marks were gradually developed. However, early papyri are often marked by the absence of standardized punctuation. Instead, reader’s aids such as diplai (>), marginal notes, and diacritical signs were introduced to guide oral reading and clarify structure. Some Christian manuscripts, such as P66, exhibit these features, suggesting a concern for readability and possibly indicating use in public reading contexts.

While the Jewish synagogue required exact adherence to Masoretic divisions in the Hebrew text (as developed later), early Christian manuscripts—written in the freer Greek literary tradition—demonstrate more variation in paragraphing, yet still reflect the influence of Jewish methods of textual organization.

Scribal Corrections and the Role of the Diorthōtēs

In both Jewish and Christian traditions, scribal correction was a key component of manuscript transmission. Jewish scribes operated under strict guidelines codified in later Talmudic tradition, ensuring that each Torah scroll was copied without error. Corrections were made carefully and often noted in the margins. By the early centuries of the Common Era, scribes known as Soferim had developed a highly controlled tradition of checking, revising, and preserving the text.

Early Christian manuscripts show evidence of similar textual corrections, often by a second hand, known in Greco-Roman scribal practice as the diorthōtēs. In manuscripts like P66 (John), corrections made by a different hand (than the original scribe) were extensive and deliberate. These corrections included orthographic adjustments, harmonizations, and marginal notations—often guided by another exemplar. Such editorial review processes suggest the presence of proto-scriptoria or Christian writing centers, which mimicked Jewish scribal precision even without a formalized scribal class like the Jewish Soferim.

The Codex and the Scroll: Diverging Formats with Common Roots

One of the most significant material differences between Jewish and Christian manuscripts is the shift in format. Jews, especially for liturgical texts, maintained a strict use of the scroll format well into the medieval period. The Torah scroll, for instance, had sacred status and was considered invalid if not copied in exact conformity with tradition.

In contrast, Christians rapidly embraced the codex, not just for practical reasons, but also as a theological and missional statement. The codex was more portable, durable, and efficient—able to contain larger collections of writings, such as the four Gospels or the Pauline epistles, in a single volume. This transition may reflect the Christian emphasis on the new covenant and a self-conscious departure from Jewish textual customs. Yet the roots of Christian reverence for written Scripture were undeniably Jewish.

Despite the difference in format, both scrolls and codices exhibit similar layout patterns, such as columns, line lengths, and margin notations, indicating that early Christians inherited and adapted Jewish layout conventions for their new textual medium.

Use and Function: Liturgical, Didactic, and Apologetic Roles

In both communities, manuscripts were not inert artifacts but living instruments of liturgical, educational, and evangelistic life. Jewish manuscripts were read aloud in the synagogue, discussed in midrashic exposition, and used in legal and theological debates. Early Christian manuscripts functioned similarly: read in house churches, discussed in teaching settings, and referenced in apologetic engagement with Jewish and pagan audiences.

The public reading of Scripture, as seen in Luke 4:16–20 (where Jesus reads from Isaiah), has a clear precedent in Jewish synagogue practice and was retained in Christian worship (cf. 1 Timothy 4:13). The material features of the manuscripts—large clear letters, margin notes, paragraph markers—indicate that many Christian manuscripts were designed for oral performance, not just private study.

Moreover, both communities understood their sacred texts as covenantal documents. For Jews, the Torah was the foundation of God’s covenant with Israel. For Christians, the writings of the apostles and evangelists formed the corpus of the new covenant, grounded in the authority of Jesus Christ and the witness of the Holy Spirit.

Summary: Continuity and Divergence in the Transmission of Sacred Texts

The shared features of Jewish and Christian manuscripts in the early centuries reflect a common textual culture inherited from the Second Temple period. These include:

Common materials: papyrus, parchment
Shared scripts: square, documentary hands
Reverence for divine names: Tetragrammaton and nomina sacra
Structured divisions: paragraphing, spacing, and layout conventions
Scribal review: corrections, use of secondary hands, and diorthōtai
Communal usage: public reading, teaching, and evangelism

Yet by the second century, key divergences begin to appear: the Christian embrace of the codex, the expanded application of nomina sacra, and the incorporation of scribal corrections within an emerging church infrastructure.

Christian scribal practices remained deeply indebted to Jewish textual heritage while simultaneously developing new conventions suited to the spread of the gospel and the documentation of the new covenant Scriptures. These parallels and distinctions provide rich insight into how the early church honored and expanded upon its Jewish roots, all under the providence of God who superintended the preservation of His written Word.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).