The Greek Septuagint: Its Origins, Development, and Role in Old Testament Textual Criticism

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The Greek Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek initiated in the 3rd century B.C.E., stands as one of the most significant textual witnesses in Old Testament textual criticism. Its influence spans Jewish and Christian communities, shaping theological discourse and biblical scholarship for centuries. This article provides a comprehensive examination of the Septuagint’s history, key recensions, textual characteristics, major codices, and critical editions, emphasizing its role in reconstructing the Hebrew text. Grounded in an evangelical perspective that upholds the trustworthiness of Scripture, this analysis employs the historical-grammatical method, avoids subjective speculation, and adheres to literal biblical chronology. By comparing the Septuagint with the Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, and other witnesses, this study highlights its contributions and limitations in textual criticism, maintaining a rigorous yet accessible academic tone.

History and Origin of the Septuagint

The Septuagint’s origins are rooted in the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great’s conquests, which spread Greek culture across the Near East. By 250 B.C.E., a significant Jewish diaspora in Alexandria, Egypt, necessitated a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures for Greek-speaking Jews who no longer understood Hebrew. According to the Letter of Aristeas, a 2nd-century B.C.E. document, Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 B.C.E.) commissioned 72 Jewish scholars to translate the Torah (Pentateuch) into Greek. While the letter contains legendary elements, such as the claim of miraculous agreement among translators, it reflects the historical reality of a translation effort in Alexandria.

The translation began with the Torah around 250 B.C.E., followed by the Prophets and Writings over the next century. The term “Septuagint,” derived from the Latin “septuaginta” (seventy), reflects the tradition of 70 or 72 translators. By 150 B.C.E., the full Hebrew canon was translated, though the exact scope and order varied. Unlike the Masoretic Text, which standardized the Hebrew canon by the 2nd century C.E., the Septuagint included additional books, such as Tobit and 1–2 Maccabees, later classified as Apocrypha by Protestants but retained in Catholic and Orthodox canons.

The Septuagint initially served Jewish liturgical and educational needs, but its adoption by early Christians, beginning in the 1st century C.E., transformed its role. New Testament authors frequently quoted the Septuagint, as seen in Hebrews 1:6, which cites Deuteronomy 32:43 from the Septuagint: “Let all God’s angels worship him,” a phrase absent in the Masoretic Text. By the 2nd century C.E., Jewish communities, wary of Christian use, reverted to Hebrew texts, prompting revisions to align the Greek more closely with the proto-Masoretic Text.

Kaige Recension

The Kaige recension, dated to the late 2nd or early 1st century B.C.E., represents an early effort to revise the Septuagint to conform to the emerging proto-Masoretic Hebrew text. The term “Kaige” derives from the characteristic translation of the Hebrew conjunction “gam” (also) as the Greek “kai ge” (and indeed). This recension, identified in texts like the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever (8HevXIIgr, ca. 50 B.C.E.–50 C.E.), aimed to correct perceived inaccuracies in the Old Greek (OG), the original Septuagint translation.

Kaige translators prioritized literal fidelity to the Hebrew, often at the expense of Greek idiom. For example, in Habakkuk 1:5, the Old Greek renders the Hebrew “look among the nations” as “look, you scoffers,” reflecting interpretive freedom, while the Kaige revises it to “look among the nations,” aligning with the Hebrew. This shift reflects a theological concern to preserve the Hebrew text’s authority amid growing divergence between Jewish and Christian textual traditions. The Kaige recension influenced later revisions, including those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, and its manuscripts provide critical evidence for tracing the Septuagint’s textual evolution.

Aquila (Siglum α)

Aquila, a Jewish proselyte from Sinope active around 130 C.E., produced a highly literal Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures to counter the Septuagint’s Christian use. His work, designated by the siglum α in Origen’s Hexapla, prioritized word-for-word correspondence with the proto-Masoretic Text. Aquila’s method was so rigid that it often sacrificed Greek readability. For instance, in Genesis 1:1, where the Septuagint translates “bereshit” (in the beginning) as “en archē,” Aquila renders it “en kephalaiō,” a neologism meaning “in the head,” to mirror the Hebrew root “rosh” (head).

Aquila’s translation, though less influential among Christians, was valued by Jewish communities for its fidelity to the Hebrew. Fragments preserved in Origen’s Hexapla and Cairo Geniza manuscripts reveal his meticulous approach, as seen in Isaiah 7:14, where he translates “almah” (young woman) as “neanis” (young woman), avoiding the Septuagint’s “parthenos” (virgin). Aquila’s work highlights the Jewish emphasis on the Hebrew text’s primacy and informs textual criticism by preserving early Hebrew readings.

Symmachus (Siglum σ)

Symmachus, active around 180 C.E., produced a Greek translation marked by clarity and idiomatic Greek, designated by the siglum σ. Likely an Ebionite, a Jewish-Christian sect, Symmachus balanced fidelity to the Hebrew with stylistic elegance, making his translation more accessible than Aquila’s. In Psalm 23:1, where the Masoretic Text reads “Jehovah is my shepherd,” and the Septuagint translates it as “kyrios poimainei me” (the Lord shepherds me), Symmachus renders it “kyrios hodegei me” (the Lord guides me), emphasizing guidance in a polished Greek style.

Symmachus’s translation, preserved in Hexapla fragments, offers valuable textual variants, particularly when it aligns with the Dead Sea Scrolls or Masoretic Text against the Septuagint. His work demonstrates the diversity of Greek translations in the 2nd century C.E. and aids textual critics in identifying interpretive tendencies in the Old Greek.

Theodotion (Siglum θ)

Theodotion, active around 150–200 C.E., produced a revision of the Septuagint, designated by the siglum θ, that aligned it more closely with the proto-Masoretic Text while retaining much of the Old Greek. His work is notable for its use in the Book of Daniel, where it replaced the Old Greek in most Christian manuscripts due to its accuracy. In Daniel 7:13, Theodotion translates “bar enash” (son of man) as “huios anthrōpou” (son of man), matching the Hebrew closely, whereas the Old Greek paraphrases it.

Theodotion’s revision, possibly influenced by Kaige, is less literal than Aquila’s but more precise than Symmachus’s. His translation of Job and the Minor Prophets, preserved in early Christian codices, provides critical evidence for textual variants. The Nahal Hever scroll confirms Theodotion’s reliance on a Hebrew text similar to the Masoretic, making his work a bridge between the Septuagint and later Hebrew traditions.

Origen’s Hexapla

Origen, a Christian scholar in Caesarea, compiled the Hexapla around 240 C.E., a monumental work aligning six columns of biblical texts to compare the Hebrew and Greek traditions. The columns included: (1) the Hebrew text, (2) a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew, (3) Aquila’s translation, (4) Symmachus’s translation, (5) the Septuagint (revised by Origen), and (6) Theodotion’s translation. For some books, additional columns included other Greek versions.

Origen’s goal was to clarify discrepancies between the Septuagint and the Hebrew text used by Jews, aiding Christian apologetics. He marked Septuagint additions with obelisks (÷) and omissions with asterisks (*), supplementing missing text from Theodotion or Aquila. For example, in Job 42:17, the Septuagint includes an epilogue absent in the Masoretic Text, which Origen marked with an obelisk, noting its absence in the Hebrew.

The Hexapla, spanning thousands of pages, was too massive for widespread copying and survived only in fragments, primarily through later copies of its Septuagint column. Despite its loss, the Hexapla’s influence persists in textual criticism, as it preserved early readings and highlighted the Septuagint’s divergence from the Hebrew. Modern scholars rely on Hexapla fragments, such as those in the Syro-Hexapla (a 7th-century Syriac translation), to reconstruct its readings.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Character of the Greek Versions

The Septuagint and its revisions exhibit distinct characteristics reflecting their purposes and audiences. The Old Greek, produced by multiple translators, varies in style, with the Torah showing greater literalism and the Prophets and Writings more interpretive freedom. Its Greek ranges from idiomatic to Semiticized, reflecting Hebrew syntax, as in Exodus 3:14, where “I am who I am” becomes “egō eimi ho ōn” (I am the one who is), a philosophical rendering.

Aquila’s version prioritizes extreme literalism, often producing awkward Greek to mirror Hebrew word order and roots. Symmachus, conversely, emphasizes readability, adapting Hebrew idioms to Greek conventions. Theodotion strikes a balance, revising the Old Greek to align with the Hebrew while preserving its style. The Kaige recension, though less polished, reflects a transitional phase toward literalism, influencing later revisions.

These versions’ theological tendencies also vary. The Septuagint occasionally softens anthropomorphisms, as in Isaiah 6:1, where “I saw Jehovah” becomes “I saw the Lord” (kyrios). Aquila and Theodotion adhere closely to the Hebrew’s theological tone, while Symmachus’s Ebionite background may inform his nuanced renderings. These characteristics guide textual critics in assessing whether variants stem from Hebrew differences or translational choices.

Lucian (GLuc)

The Lucianic recension, attributed to Lucian of Antioch (d. 312 C.E.), is a 3rd-century revision of the Septuagint aimed at improving its Greek style and clarity for Christian use. Designated GLuc, it is prominent in manuscripts from the Antiochene region, particularly in the Historical Books and Prophets. Lucian’s revisions polished the Greek, harmonized parallel passages, and occasionally incorporated readings from the proto-Masoretic Text or other Greek versions.

In 1 Kings 18:42, where the Septuagint reads “Elijah went up to the top of Carmel,” the Lucianic text adds “and prayed,” aligning with the Masoretic Text’s implication of prayer. While some Lucianic readings clarify ambiguities, others introduce expansions, complicating their textual value. The Lucianic text, preserved in manuscripts like Codex Alexandrinus, remains a secondary witness in textual criticism, as its late date and editorial nature limit its authority compared to earlier Septuagint texts.

Textual History of the Greek Versions

The Septuagint’s textual history is complex, marked by multiple translations, revisions, and recensions. After its initial translation (250–150 B.C.E.), the Old Greek circulated in diverse forms, reflecting regional and scribal variations. By the 1st century B.C.E., the Kaige recension introduced systematic revisions, followed by Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus in the 2nd century C.E. Origen’s Hexapla further shaped the text, though his revised Septuagint column introduced inconsistencies by blending Old Greek and Hebrew readings.

By the 4th century C.E., Christian codices like Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus standardized the Septuagint for ecclesiastical use, but scribal errors and regional preferences persisted. The Lucianic recension, dominant in Antioch, coexisted with unrevised Old Greek texts in Egypt. The Septuagint’s divergence from the Masoretic Text, standardized by the Masoretes (6th–10th centuries C.E.), reflects both variant Hebrew Vorlagen and translational choices. Textual critics use the Septuagint to reconstruct early Hebrew texts, particularly when corroborated by the Dead Sea Scrolls, but its value depends on careful analysis of its complex transmission.

Codex Vaticanus (B)

Codex Vaticanus, designated B, is a 4th-century C.E. Christian uncial manuscript housed in the Vatican Library. Containing most of the Old and New Testaments, it is one of the earliest complete Septuagint texts. Written on vellum in a clear Greek script, Vaticanus reflects the Alexandrian textual tradition, preserving an early form of the Old Greek with minimal revisions. Its text of Isaiah, for example, closely matches the Old Greek, differing from the Masoretic Text in passages like Isaiah 53:5, where it reads “he was wounded for our sins” versus the Hebrew “he was pierced for our transgressions.”

Vaticanus’s high scribal quality, with few corrections, makes it a primary witness in textual criticism. However, it contains errors, such as omissions due to homoioteleuton (skipping text with similar endings). Its lacunae, including parts of Genesis and Psalms, limit its scope, but its agreement with the Dead Sea Scrolls in certain readings, like Deuteronomy 32:8 (“sons of God”), enhances its value for reconstructing early Hebrew texts.

Codex Sinaiticus (א)

Codex Sinaiticus, designated א (Aleph), is a 4th-century C.E. manuscript discovered at St. Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, in the 19th century. Written on vellum, it contains large portions of the Septuagint and New Testament. Sinaiticus represents the Alexandrian tradition but shows more scribal corrections than Vaticanus, reflecting multiple hands. In Tobit, Sinaiticus preserves a longer recension than Vaticanus, suggesting textual diversity in the Apocrypha.

Sinaiticus’s Septuagint text often aligns with Vaticanus but includes unique readings, such as in 1 Chronicles 19:17, where it adds details absent in the Masoretic Text. Its corrections, some aligning with the proto-Masoretic Text, indicate early textual fluidity. Sinaiticus’s accessibility via digital facsimiles has made it a cornerstone for textual studies, though its variants require careful evaluation against other witnesses.

Codex Alexandrinus (A)

Codex Alexandrinus, designated A, is a 5th-century C.E. manuscript housed in the British Library. Containing most of the Septuagint and New Testament, it reflects a mixed textual tradition, blending Alexandrian and Lucianic elements. In the Historical Books, Alexandrinus follows the Lucianic recension, as seen in 2 Samuel 7:16, where it expands the text for clarity. In the Prophets, it aligns more closely with the Old Greek.

Alexandrinus’s ornate script and later date make it less authoritative than Vaticanus or Sinaiticus, but its completeness and inclusion of Apocryphal books enhance its value. Its variants, such as in Psalm 145:13, where it includes the “nun” verse absent in the Masoretic Text, align with Dead Sea Scroll readings, aiding textual reconstruction. Alexandrinus remains a key witness for studying the Septuagint’s later transmission.

Göttingen Editions

The Göttingen Septuagint, initiated in the 20th century by the Göttingen Academy, is the most comprehensive critical edition of the Septuagint. Edited by scholars like Alfred Rahlfs and Robert Hanhart, it reconstructs the Old Greek text for each biblical book, using manuscripts like Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus, supplemented by Hexapla fragments and patristic citations. The Göttingen editions provide a critical apparatus listing variants, such as in Genesis 4:8, where some manuscripts include “let us go out to the field,” absent in others.

Each volume focuses on a specific book or group, offering detailed introductions on textual history and manuscript evidence. The Göttingen project’s rigorous methodology makes it indispensable for textual critics, though its complexity limits accessibility for non-specialists. Its emphasis on the Old Greek, rather than later recensions, aligns with evangelical commitments to recovering the earliest texts.

Rahlfs (1935)

Alfred Rahlfs’s 1935 edition, “Septuaginta: Id Est Vetus Testamentum Graece Iuxta LXX Interpretes,” is a widely used critical text of the Septuagint. Based primarily on Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus, Rahlfs aimed to produce a practical edition for scholars and translators. Unlike the Göttingen editions, Rahlfs’s text is a single-volume work with a concise apparatus, making it more accessible.

Rahlfs’s edition prioritizes the Old Greek but incorporates some Hexapla readings, as in Job 42:17, where it notes Origen’s obelisks. While less detailed than Göttingen, Rahlfs’s text remains valuable for its balance of scholarship and usability. Its influence persists in translations like the New English Translation of the Septuagint, though scholars supplement it with Göttingen for exhaustive variant analysis.

New English Translation of the Septuagint (2007)

The New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS), published in 2007, provides an English rendering of the Septuagint based on the Göttingen and Rahlfs editions. Edited by Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, NETS aims to reflect the Greek text’s meaning as understood by its Hellenistic Jewish translators, preserving its Semitic flavor. For example, in Psalm 22:16, NETS translates “they pierced my hands and my feet,” following the Septuagint’s “parthenos” against the Masoretic “like a lion.”

NETS includes introductions explaining translational principles and textual issues, making it accessible to scholars and lay readers. Its reliance on critical editions ensures accuracy, though its interpretive choices, such as rendering Hebrew idioms literally, reflect the Septuagint’s unique character. For evangelicals, NETS aids textual criticism by providing a reliable English Septuagint, though the Masoretic Text remains the primary standard.

The Septuagint in Textual Criticism

The Septuagint’s role in textual criticism is both significant and complex. Its early date and widespread use make it a critical witness to the Hebrew text before the Masoretic standardization. When the Septuagint aligns with the Dead Sea Scrolls against the Masoretic Text, as in 1 Samuel 11:1, it may preserve an earlier Hebrew reading. However, its status as a translation introduces challenges, as variants often stem from interpretive choices rather than Hebrew differences. For instance, in Jeremiah 10:5, the Septuagint’s shorter text may reflect a different Hebrew Vorlage or deliberate abridgment by translators.

Textual critics approach the Septuagint cautiously, requiring corroboration from Hebrew witnesses like the Dead Sea Scrolls or Masoretic Text. The principles of lectio difficilior and internal coherence guide variant evaluation, prioritizing readings that best explain textual divergence. The Septuagint’s theological significance, particularly for New Testament studies, enhances its value, but its authority is secondary to the Hebrew text in evangelical scholarship.

Challenges and Considerations

The Septuagint’s textual diversity, with multiple recensions and codices, complicates its use in textual criticism. Determining the Old Greek text requires distinguishing it from later revisions like Kaige or Lucian, a task demanding expertise in Greek and Hebrew philology. The loss of the Hexapla and limited manuscript evidence further hinder reconstruction efforts. Additionally, the Septuagint’s inclusion of Apocryphal books raises canonical questions for evangelicals, who prioritize the Hebrew canon.

Paleographic and papyrological studies aid Septuagint research by analyzing script and material evidence. The transition from papyrus scrolls to vellum codices in the 4th century C.E. improved preservation, but early Septuagint manuscripts, like the 2nd-century B.C.E. Papyrus Rylands 458, are fragmentary. These fragments confirm the Septuagint’s early circulation but offer limited textual data.

The Septuagint and Evangelical Scholarship

From an evangelical perspective, the Septuagint reinforces confidence in Scripture’s trustworthiness by providing an early witness to the Hebrew text. Its agreement with the Masoretic Text in most passages, as seen in the Torah’s consistency across manuscripts, affirms the Hebrew Scriptures’ faithful transmission. Variants, while present, rarely affect doctrinal or historical content, and the Septuagint’s role in New Testament quotations underscores its theological importance.

Evangelical scholars use the Septuagint to complement the Masoretic Text, not to challenge its primacy. By grounding textual criticism in objective evidence and a high view of Scripture, the Septuagint serves as a valuable tool for reconstructing the inspired Word of God, guiding both academic study and faithful proclamation.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).