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Materials for Receiving Writing

The study of New Testament manuscripts begins with understanding the materials on which the text was originally recorded. The physical composition of manuscripts reveals much about the historical context, scribal practices, and the preservation of the text. Early Christians employed materials such as papyrus, parchment, and vellum to record the inspired Scriptures. This chapter will explore these materials and their relevance to New Testament textual studies, while grounding the discussion in scriptural and historical contexts.

P46 – A papyrus manuscript of 2 Corinthians 4:13–5:4 from about 100-150 C.E.

Papyrus: The Earliest Writing Material

Historical Context of Papyrus Usage

Papyrus, derived from the Cyperus papyrus plant, was the most common writing material in the Mediterranean world until the third century C.E. Its affordability and widespread availability made it the preferred medium for the earliest Christian writings. Papyrus sheets were constructed by pressing and drying layers of plant fibers, which were then glued together to form scrolls or codices.

The New Testament writers likely composed their autographs (original writings) on papyrus. For example, Paul’s letters were written down by an amanuensis and sent to various congregations (cf. Romans 16:22). It is noteworthy that in 2 Timothy 4:13, Paul requests Timothy to bring “the scrolls, especially the parchments,” indicating the use of various materials for recording Scripture.

Papyrus Manuscripts in New Testament Studies

The most significant extant papyrus manuscripts include:

𝔓46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II): Dated to approximately 100–150 C.E., this manuscript contains a large portion of Pauline epistles.
𝔓52 (Rylands Papyrus): Often dated to 125-150 C.E., it contains a fragment of John 18:31–33, 37–38, and is one of the earliest pieces of New Testament evidence.

Papyrus manuscripts bear witness to the textual integrity of the New Testament. Their discovery underscores the rapid dissemination of Scripture in the early Christian era, often within a single generation of the apostles. This aligns with the urgency described in Colossians 4:16, where Paul instructed, “After this letter has been read to you, see that it is also read in the church of the Laodiceans.”

Challenges of Papyrus Preservation

The fragile nature of papyrus has meant that surviving specimens are often fragmentary, requiring careful reconstruction by textual scholars. This painstaking work reflects the dedication to preserving and restoring the original text as accurately as possible. While the physical materials have not been miraculously preserved without loss or damage, the enduring availability of these manuscripts demonstrates Jehovah’s purpose to safeguard the message of His Word. Jesus’ assurance in Matthew 24:35—”Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away”—underscores the enduring power of God’s Word, even as it is preserved through human efforts.

A skin of parchment stretched on a frame

Parchment and Vellum: Durable Alternatives

Transition from Papyrus to Parchment

By the fourth century C.E., parchment, made from animal skins, began to replace papyrus as the preferred material for Scripture. This transition coincided with Constantine’s patronage of Christianity and the need for more durable texts. The Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, two of the most important New Testament manuscripts, were written on parchment.

Parchment in Biblical Chronology

The durability of parchment facilitated the preservation of entire New Testament codices. These texts include some of the earliest complete Greek Bibles, such as:

Codex Sinaiticus (c. 330–360 C.E.): Contains the entire New Testament and parts of the Old Testament.
Codex Vaticanus (c. 300–330 C.E.): Known for its precise text of the Gospels and Pauline epistles.

The shift to parchment not only preserved the text physically but also demonstrated the growing recognition of the Scriptures as sacred writings, set apart for long-term use. Paul’s admonition in 2 Timothy 3:16—”All Scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness”—echoes the value placed on these materials.

The Codex: A Revolutionary Format

The Rise of the Codex in Christianity

The adoption of the codex format—a book form with pages sewn together—was revolutionary. Unlike scrolls, codices allowed for easier navigation, compact storage, and simultaneous recording of multiple texts. This innovation significantly contributed to the propagation of the New Testament.

By the second century C.E., Christians predominantly used codices for Scripture. This was a practical choice that also distinguished Christian writings from Jewish scrolls and pagan texts. The codex format reflected the early Christians’ commitment to making the Scriptures accessible and portable, as seen in the missionary efforts described in Acts 13:49: “The word of the Lord spread through the whole region.”

Significance of the Codex in Preservation

Codices such as the Codex Alexandrinus (fifth century C.E.) demonstrate how the new format ensured the survival of entire sections of the New Testament. The codex also allowed for uniformity in copying, thereby reducing textual errors and preserving doctrinal accuracy.

Scribal Practices and Their Impact

Role of the Scribe

Scribes were essential in the transmission of the New Testament text. They meticulously copied manuscripts by hand, often under challenging conditions. Early scribes viewed their work as a sacred duty, as implied by Paul’s charge in 1 Timothy 4:13: “Until I come, devote yourself to the public reading of Scripture, to preaching and to teaching.”

However, human error occasionally crept into the copying process. Common mistakes included:

Omissions: Skipping lines or words, particularly when they contained similar endings.
Additions: Expanding on a text for clarity or doctrinal emphasis.

Correcting Errors in Manuscripts

Despite these challenges, scribes implemented quality control measures. Correctors reviewed manuscripts to ensure accuracy, and textual variants were often noted in the margins. These practices preserved the integrity of the New Testament text over centuries.

Book Hand: Livy Paris-Bibliotheque Nationale

Papyrology and Paleography in Textual Criticism

Dating Manuscripts

Paleography, the study of ancient handwriting, is instrumental in dating New Testament manuscripts. Scholars examine letter forms, ligatures, and other stylistic features to assign approximate dates. For instance, the distinctive script of 𝔓66 suggests a composition date of c. 125-150 C.E.

Papyrology, focusing on papyrus documents, complements paleography by contextualizing manuscripts within their historical and geographic settings. These disciplines affirm that the New Testament text is rooted in its first-century origins, harmonizing with Luke 1:3, where Luke states, “I myself have carefully investigated everything from the beginning.”

Relevance for Conservative Textual Criticism

Paleography and papyrology uphold the reliability of the New Testament text by demonstrating its transmission within historically verifiable frameworks. These methods reveal that the text we possess today reflects the autographs, fulfilling Isaiah 40:8: “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.”

The Preservation and Restoration of the New Testament

The materials and methods used to record and transmit the New Testament reveal a process of careful preservation and restoration by human scribes, not miraculous preservation. The Scriptures affirm that Jehovah’s Word endures (cf. Isaiah 40:8; 1 Peter 1:25), but this enduring nature refers to its message and purpose, not the unbroken survival of every letter or word in the original form.

The reality of textual transmission demonstrates that scribes faithfully copied the text, though human errors inevitably arose. These textual variants—numbering in the hundreds of thousands across thousands of manuscripts—reflect the challenges of manual copying, but they do not compromise the integrity of the biblical message. Textual criticism, through the disciplines of paleography and papyrology, works to identify and restore the original text to the extent possible, affirming the reliability of the New Testament as the inspired Word of God.

This process is a testament to Jehovah’s providence, not in miraculously preventing textual variations, but in ensuring that His Word has been preserved and restored through the diligent efforts of faithful scribes and scholars throughout history.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

How Did Writing Utensils Influence the Transmission of the New Testament Text?

Introduction to Writing Utensils in Ancient Textual Transmission

The process of composing the New Testament required not only suitable materials but also appropriate writing utensils. The tools employed by scribes significantly impacted the accuracy and clarity of the manuscripts. This chapter examines the primary writing instruments used in the ancient world, their role in the transmission of Scripture, and their implications for textual studies.

The Reed Pen: The Primary Tool for Writing

The Origin and Crafting of Reed Pens

The reed pen (calamus) was the predominant writing instrument in the ancient Mediterranean world, including during the time the New Testament was written. Made from hollow reeds, these pens were cut and shaped into a pointed tip, sometimes with a split to allow the ink to flow. Their simplicity and accessibility made them ideal for use with papyrus, the most common writing material of the era.

Jeremiah 36:4 gives us insight into the role of the scribe: “Baruch wrote on a scroll at Jeremiah’s dictation all the words of Jehovah that he had spoken to him.” This passage highlights the practical necessity of such tools for recording divine revelation. The reed pen’s ability to produce fine and broad strokes was particularly useful for the Greek script of the New Testament, with its flowing, cursive style.

Challenges of the Reed Pen

The reed pen required frequent maintenance, as the tips wore down or split during use. Scribes needed to carry knives to recut and sharpen the pen tips. This delicate process required precision to ensure the accuracy and legibility of the text. The physical limitations of the reed pen sometimes resulted in scribal errors, such as skipped letters or words, due to fatigue or difficulty in maintaining consistent strokes.

Ink: A Vital Companion to Writing Utensils

Composition and Application of Ancient Ink

The ink used by scribes was typically made from soot or lampblack mixed with gum and water. This ink, known as carbon ink, adhered well to papyrus and parchment and could last for centuries. It is notable that ink is explicitly mentioned in the Scriptures. In 2 John 12, the apostle John wrote, “I have much to write to you, but I do not want to use paper and ink. Instead, I hope to visit you and talk with you face to face.”

The dark, durable quality of carbon ink ensured that the sacred text could be preserved for generations. However, environmental conditions and the acidity of ink occasionally led to fading or damage, requiring later scribes to retrace or copy deteriorating manuscripts.

Innovations in Ink Usage

As scribes transitioned from papyrus to parchment in the early centuries C.E., adjustments in ink composition were necessary. Iron-gall ink, made from iron salts and tannic acids, became common in later centuries due to its superior adhesion to parchment. This ink often darkened with age, providing added durability, but it also had a corrosive effect, sometimes damaging the writing surface.

The Stylus: An Auxiliary Tool for Preparation

Uses of the Stylus in Textual Preparation

While reed pens were used for writing, styluses were employed to prepare writing surfaces. A stylus, typically made of metal or bone, was used to score guidelines on papyrus or parchment. These lines ensured that the text was written in straight rows, which was critical for readability. This technique is evident in many early manuscripts, where faint impressions from styluses are still visible.

The use of the stylus reflects the care taken by scribes to present the Scriptures with precision and order, fulfilling the apostolic admonition in 1 Corinthians 14:40: “But everything should be done in a fitting and orderly way.”

Styluses in Wax Tablets

Styluses were also used to write temporary notes on wax-coated tablets. These tablets, common in the Roman world, allowed scribes to draft or copy sections of text before committing them to permanent materials. While wax tablets were not directly used for New Testament composition, they were likely part of the broader scribal process.

Quills: A Later Development in Writing

By the sixth century C.E., quills made from bird feathers began to replace reed pens in some regions. Quills allowed for greater flexibility and finer detail, particularly on parchment. However, the New Testament manuscripts produced during the early centuries, including key codices such as Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, were written using reed pens. The shift to quills coincided with changes in script styles, such as the transition from uncial to minuscule handwriting.

The Role of Writing Utensils in Textual Variants

Scribal Errors and Textual Integrity

The limitations of ancient writing utensils sometimes contributed to textual variants. For instance, uneven ink flow or an improperly cut pen could obscure letters, leading to misreadings by subsequent copyists. Despite these challenges, the vast majority of scribal errors were minor and did not affect the doctrinal content of the New Testament.

Jesus’ promise in John 10:35 that “the Scripture cannot be broken” underscores the confidence believers can have in the reliability of the biblical text, despite the imperfections of human scribes.

Evidence from Manuscripts

Close examination of early manuscripts reveals corrections made by scribes to address errors caused by their tools. For example, marginal notes and interlinear corrections in Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Bezae demonstrate the diligence of scribes in preserving the text’s accuracy. These corrections affirm that Jehovah’s providence extended to the process of textual transmission.

Paleographic Insights into Writing Utensils

Handwriting Styles and Tool Usage

Paleographers study the distinct styles of ancient handwriting to deduce the types of writing utensils used. For example, the angular script of early uncial manuscripts suggests the use of firm reed pens, while the flowing cursive of later minuscule texts reflects the greater flexibility of quills. These insights help scholars date manuscripts and identify their geographic origins.

Implications for Textual Studies

The study of writing utensils and their effects on manuscript production provides valuable context for understanding textual variants. It also highlights the dedication of early Christians to accurately transmit the Scriptures, even under less-than-ideal conditions. As the psalmist declared in Psalm 12:6, “The words of Jehovah are flawless, like silver purified in a crucible, like gold refined seven times.”

The Role of Writing Utensils in Preserving and Restoring Scripture

The reed pen, stylus, and ink were indispensable tools in the transmission of the New Testament. While these instruments had physical limitations, the scribes who wielded them worked diligently to preserve and restore the text of Scripture as accurately as possible. Their efforts, though not miraculously free from human error, ensured the faithful transmission of Jehovah’s Word.

Through the study of paleography and textual analysis, we can better understand the complex process by which the Scriptures were transmitted. This reflects Jehovah’s promise in Isaiah 55:11: “So is my word that goes out from my mouth: It will not return to me empty, but will accomplish what I desire and achieve the purpose for which I sent it.” Although this does not imply miraculous preservation, it highlights the enduring power of God’s Word to fulfill His purposes through human means.

How Did Book Forms Shape the Transmission of the New Testament Text?

Introduction to Book Forms in New Testament Paleography

The development of book forms played a pivotal role in the transmission and preservation of the New Testament. Early Christians adopted and adapted existing formats to meet the needs of their growing community and the dissemination of Scripture. By examining the forms of books used in the ancient world—scrolls, codices, and other variants—we gain insight into how these choices influenced the accuracy, durability, and accessibility of the New Testament text.

The Scroll: The Dominant Form in the Early Era

The Composition and Use of Scrolls

In the ancient world, the scroll was the standard book form. Constructed from sheets of papyrus or parchment glued or sewn together, scrolls could range from several feet to over thirty feet in length. Texts were written in columns along the length of the scroll, which was unrolled horizontally as the reader advanced through the material.

Scrolls were widely used among the Jewish people, as seen in Jesus’ reading of Isaiah in the synagogue: “He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written” (Luke 4:16-17). The use of scrolls for Old Testament Scriptures made them a natural choice for the early New Testament writings.

Challenges of Scrolls in New Testament Transmission

The scroll format presented significant limitations. First, its bulkiness and fragility made transportation difficult, especially for itinerant preachers such as the apostles (cf. Acts 13:49). Additionally, locating specific passages within a scroll was cumbersome, as continuous unrolling was required to find the desired section.

These challenges underscore the providence of Jehovah in preserving His Word despite practical difficulties, fulfilling Jesus’ assurance in Matthew 24:35: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.”

The Codex: A Revolutionary Development

Adoption of the Codex by Christians

The codex—a book form consisting of stacked and bound pages—emerged in the first century C.E. as an innovative alternative to scrolls. While initially used for mundane purposes such as accounting or notes, early Christians quickly adopted the codex for Scripture. This shift was revolutionary, allowing for more compact and durable copies of the New Testament to be produced.

The apostle Paul’s instruction in 2 Timothy 4:13, “Bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, and my scrolls, especially the parchments,” hints at the variety of materials and forms in circulation during his ministry. While the exact format of these parchments is unknown, it is plausible that early codices were among them, reflecting their growing popularity.

Advantages of the Codex

The codex offered several advantages over the scroll:

Ease of Use: Pages could be turned quickly, allowing readers to navigate large texts with greater efficiency.
Portability: Codices were smaller and easier to carry, facilitating the dissemination of Scripture by missionaries and scribes.
Capacity: Unlike scrolls, codices could contain multiple books, making it possible to compile the entire New Testament into a single volume.

By the third century C.E., the codex had become the dominant format for Christian writings. Its widespread adoption illustrates the early believers’ commitment to making Jehovah’s Word accessible to all.

Codex Manuscripts of the New Testament

The codex format allowed for the preservation of complete New Testament manuscripts. Significant examples include:

Codex Alexandrinus (c. 400–450 C.E.): One of the most significant early manuscripts of the Christian Bible, dating from around 400-450 C.E. Here are some key details about it.
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 400–450 C.E.): It is a palimpsest, meaning its original text was partially erased and written over in the 12th century with Greek translations of 38 treatises by Ephrem the Syrian, hence the name “Rescriptus” (rewritten). The original biblical text was not completely effaced, allowing scholars to recover much of it.

These manuscripts reflect the benefits of the codex in preserving large quantities of text while maintaining the integrity of Scripture.

Parchment and Vellum in Book Forms

Transition from Papyrus to Parchment

As the codex gained popularity, parchment and vellum replaced papyrus as the preferred materials for book production. Parchment, made from treated animal skins, was far more durable than papyrus and better suited to the codex format. This transition occurred gradually between the second and fourth centuries C.E.

The durability of parchment contributed to the preservation of New Testament manuscripts, fulfilling the psalmist’s declaration: “Your word, Jehovah, is eternal; it stands firm in the heavens” (Psalm 119:89).

Innovations in Book Production

The use of parchment also facilitated the creation of illuminated manuscripts and more intricate layouts. The increased longevity of these materials ensured that copies of the New Testament could endure the passage of time, even under adverse conditions.

The Practicality of Book Forms in Textual Transmission

Facilitating the Spread of Christianity

The codex format was instrumental in the rapid spread of Christianity. Its portability and convenience allowed missionaries to carry copies of the New Testament to diverse regions, aligning with the command in Matthew 28:19-20: “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you.”

Preserving the Integrity of Scripture

The stability provided by codices reduced the likelihood of errors during copying. While textual variants existed, the overall reliability of the New Testament text was enhanced by the codex format, as scribes could cross-reference pages and incorporate corrections more effectively.

Book Forms and Scribal Practices

Scribes’ Role in Manuscript Production

Scribes played a crucial role in adapting their methods to suit new book forms. The transition from scrolls to codices required adjustments in layout, script size, and the use of margins. For example, early codices often featured wide margins to allow for corrections and annotations.

The meticulous work of scribes highlights their dedication to preserving Jehovah’s Word. As Paul instructed Timothy, “Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved, a worker who does not need to be ashamed and who correctly handles the word of truth” (2 Timothy 2:15).

Challenges in Book Production

The production of codices was labor-intensive and costly. The preparation of parchment alone required significant resources, often involving the skins of multiple animals. Despite these challenges, the commitment of early Christians ensured the continued transmission of the New Testament.

Theological Implications of Book Forms

The evolution of book forms reflects Jehovah’s providence in ensuring the preservation and accessibility of His Word. The shift from scrolls to codices was not simply a practical development but a significant step in the process of preserving and restoring the Scriptures for future generations. While this evolution was carried out through human ingenuity and effort, it aligns with the truth of Isaiah 40:8: “The grass withers and the flowers fall, but the word of our God endures forever,” emphasizing the enduring power of Jehovah’s message.

Furthermore, the adoption of the codex symbolized the unity of the New Testament. By compiling multiple books into a single volume, early Christians emphasized the coherence and completeness of Scripture, reinforcing its authority and divine inspiration.

The Enduring Legacy of New Testament Book Forms

The transition from scrolls to codices marked a significant milestone in the transmission of the New Testament. The practicality and durability of the codex ensured that Jehovah’s Word could be preserved and disseminated with greater efficiency. Through the adoption of innovative book forms, early Christians demonstrated their unwavering commitment to fulfilling their commission to spread the Gospel.

The study of book forms not only enhances our understanding of the New Testament’s textual history but also reaffirms the truth of Jehovah’s promises. As Proverbs 30:5 declares: “Every word of God is flawless; he is a shield to those who take refuge in him.”

Handwriting

No Miraculous Preservation but Rather Preservation and Restoration

1 Peter 1:25 and Isaiah 40:8 are often taken by the charismatics, the King James Version Onlyists, and those in the unknowing to mean that God’s Word has gone unchanged since the original were written. They believe in miraculous preservation, which is biblically untrue and not the case in reality because there are hundreds of thousands of textual variants in tens of thousands of Hebrew and Greek manuscripts. What we have is the copyists preserving the texts as best as they could.

Scribal Skills

The quality and precision of these copies often depended on the scribe’s skill. Manuscripts can exhibit different handwriting styles, indicating the diversity of scribes involved in their copying:

The Common Hand: Sometimes, it can be tough to differentiate a badly made “documentary” handwriting from a regular one. However, typically, common handwriting shows the effort of someone with limited Greek-writing skills.

The Documentary Hand: These scribes were often accustomed to writing documents, such as business records or minor official documents. Their work is characterized by non-uniform lettering, with the initial letter on each line often larger than the rest. The lines of letters may not be even.

The Reformed Documentary Hand: This term refers to scribes who were aware they were copying a literary work rather than a mere document. Their work often exhibits more care and a slightly higher degree of uniformity than the basic documentary hand.

Professional Bookhand: Some manuscripts were clearly copied by professional scribes skilled in producing literary texts. An example is the Gospel codex known as P4+64+67, which showcases well-crafted calligraphy, paragraph markings, double columns, and punctuation.

How We Got the Greek Text of the New Testament:

Transmission:

Inspiration and Original Writing:

The New Testament writings are considered by Christians to be inspired by the Holy Spirit. This means that the original authors, like Paul, John, or Peter, were guided by divine influence in their composition. This process is described in 2 Peter 1:21 where it states that “men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”

Manuscript Copying:

After the originals were written, they were copied by hand. This copying was not under the same divine inspiration. Therefore, while the original texts were considered inerrant by believers, the copies made by scribes could contain errors due to human limitations.

Corruption:

Unintentional Errors:

Orthographic Variants: Simple spelling mistakes or misunderstandings of the text due to similar sounding words in Greek.
Omissions or Additions: Sometimes, scribes would inadvertently omit words or lines, or add them based on what they thought should be there or what they remembered from memory.
Transpositions: Words or letters might be written in a different order.

Intentional Changes:

Harmonizations: Scribes might adjust texts to make them consistent with parallel accounts in other Gospels or with Old Testament passages.
Theological Emendations: Changes made to clarify or emphasize theological points, or sometimes to protect the text against heretical interpretations.

Types of Scribal Hands:

The Common Hand:

Reflects the work of less skilled or less literate scribes. The handwriting might be sloppy, letters might be uneven, and there could be frequent mistakes due to the scribe’s limited proficiency in Greek.

The Documentary Hand:

Used by scribes familiar with writing documents like contracts or letters. The writing might not be aesthetically pleasing but functional. Letters might vary in size, especially with the first letter of a line being larger, and lines might not be straight.

The Reformed Documentary Hand:

Indicates a scribe who recognized the text’s literary value, aiming for better legibility and uniformity than a purely documentary hand but not reaching the skill level of a professional.

Professional Bookhand:

Employed by those trained in calligraphy for literary works. These manuscripts would exhibit careful lettering, use of spacing, punctuation, and other features for clarity and beauty. An example is the early codex P4+64+67, which shows advanced scribal practices.

Restoration:

Textual Criticism:

From the 18th century onwards, scholars like Johann Jakob Griesbach, Karl Lachmann, Constantin von Tischendorf, Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort, Eberhard Nestle, Kurt and Barbara Aland, and Bruce M. Metzger have worked on reconstructing the original text of the New Testament.
They compare thousands of manuscripts, versions, and quotations by early Church Fathers to discern the most likely original readings. Their work involves:
- Collation: Comparing manuscripts to note variants.
- Textual Analysis: Evaluating these variants based on external (manuscript age, geographical distribution) and internal (scribal habits, theological tendencies) evidence.
- Eclectic Editions: Producing texts that blend readings from various manuscripts believed to best represent the original text.

This scholarly endeavor continues today with the use of digital tools and broader manuscript access, striving to get closer to the original wording of the New Testament texts while acknowledging the human elements in their transmission.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).