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Writing on Stone: The Oldest Medium for Texts

The earliest form of writing in many ancient cultures involved inscribing text onto stone, a durable medium that ensured longevity. This practice is evident in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the lands surrounding ancient Israel. Notable examples include the Code of Hammurabi, inscribed on a basalt stele around 1750 B.C.E., which displayed laws for public access, emphasizing the importance of written documentation.

Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon; front, bas-relief.

In the biblical context, stone is the first material explicitly mentioned for recording divine commandments. Jehovah inscribed the Ten Commandments on two stone tablets, described in Exodus 31:18 as “tables of stone written with the finger of God.” These tablets embodied the permanence and sanctity of God’s laws, a sentiment reinforced in Deuteronomy 10:1-5, where Moses recounts their replacement following his initial breaking of the first set.

In Palestine, archaeological finds such as the Gezer Calendar and the Siloam Inscription underscore the use of stone for Hebrew writing. The Gezer Calendar, dated to Solomon’s reign (circa 925 B.C.E.), describes agricultural activities in an early Hebrew script. Similarly, the Siloam Inscription commemorates the completion of Hezekiah’s tunnel (circa 700 B.C.E.), a project mentioned in 2 Kings 20:20 and 2 Chronicles 32:30.

The Moabite Stone, another significant artifact, dates to the ninth century B.C.E. and contains 34 lines of Canaanite script commemorating King Mesha’s revolt against Israel. Remarkably, this inscription includes the divine name, JHVH, outside the territory of Israel, emphasizing the acknowledgment of Israel’s God even among neighboring nations.

The Water Tunnels at the Spring of Gihon – Siloam Inscription

The stone not only mentions the name of King Omri of Israel but also, in the 18th line, contains God’s name in the form of the Tetragrammaton. Om’ri. (pupil of Jehovah). 1. Originally, “captain of the host,” to Elah, was afterward, himself, king of Israel, and founder of the third dynasty. (B.C. 926). Omri was engaged in the siege of Gibbethon situated in the tribe of Dan, which had been occupied by the Philistines. As soon as the army heard of Elah’s death, they proclaimed Omri, king. Thereupon, he broke up the siege of Gibbethon and attacked Tirzah, where Zimri was holding his court as king of Israel. The city was taken, and Zimri perished in the flames of the palace, after a reign of seven days. Omri, however, was not allowed to establish his dynasty, without a struggle against Tibni, whom “half the people,” 1Ki_16:21, desired to raise to the throne. The civil war lasted four years. Compare 1Ki_16:15 with 1Ki_16:23. After the defeat and death of Tibni, Omri reigned for six years in Tirzah. At Samaria, Omri reigned for six years more. He seems to have been a vigorous and unscrupulous ruler, anxious to strengthen his dynasty, by intercourse and alliances with foreign states.

Clay Tablets: The Record of Ancient Bureaucracies

Clay tablets were the most common medium for writing in Mesopotamia, used for everything from administrative records to literary texts. These tablets, inscribed with cuneiform script, were baked or sun-dried for preservation. The durability of clay has allowed over half a million tablets to survive to modern times, providing critical insights into the ancient Near Eastern context of the Bible.

The Babylonian Chronicles are a series of clay tablets inscribed with Babylonian history. They were written at different times, beginning around the sixth century BC. They narrate events beginning in the eighth century BC and cover nearly 500 years of history. Some describe events of biblical history—including Jehoiakim’s refusal to pay tribute (2 Kgs 24:1), Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:10–11), and Jehoiachin’s capture (2 Kgs 24:12).

Ezekiel 4:1 references this material when Jehovah commands the prophet to inscribe a model of Jerusalem on a brick, illustrating the adaptability of clay as a writing surface. Libraries of clay tablets, such as those discovered in Ebla (circa 2400 B.C.E.) and Tell-el-Amarna (circa 1350 B.C.E.), reveal extensive collections of treaties, royal correspondence, and historical chronicles, shedding light on the world surrounding biblical events.

A clay tablet containing one of the Amarna letters that mention Hazor

Amarna letter. Letter from Labayu (ruler of Shechem) to the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III or his son Akhenaten.

The chronicles of Assyrian kings like Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar II corroborate biblical accounts of their interactions with Israel and Judah. For example, Sennacherib’s clay prism describes his siege of Jerusalem during Hezekiah’s reign, an event recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-19:37.

Wood and Wax Tablets: Versatile and Portable

Wooden tablets, often coated with wax, served as reusable writing surfaces in antiquity. References to writing on wood appear in Numbers 17:2-3, where Aaron’s rod is inscribed with his name, and Ezekiel 37:16-17, which describes writing on wooden sticks to symbolize the reunification of Israel and Judah. These tablets, common in Roman times, evolved into codices, precursors to modern books, making them a pivotal innovation in textual transmission.

Isaiah 30:8 and Habakkuk 2:2 may allude to wooden boards as writing surfaces, demonstrating their practicality for recording divine messages.

Metal as a Medium for Enduring Records

Metal surfaces provided an additional durable option for preserving texts, particularly for important inscriptions. Exodus 28:36 mentions the use of gold for inscribing a plate worn on the high priest’s turban, reading “Holy to Jehovah.” Ancient cultures, including Greece and Rome, used bronze tablets for treaties and decrees. Small bronze diplomas issued to Roman soldiers highlight the versatility of this medium.

Two ‘amulets’ from Ketef Hinnom (7th-6th century BC) The two small silver scrolls, discovered in 1979 at Ketef Hinnom near Jerusalem, are significant archaeological finds that contain the Priestly Blessing from Numbers 6:24-26. These scrolls date back to the late 7th century BCE and are considered the oldest known biblical texts.

Among the most remarkable metal artifacts are two small silver scrolls dating to the sixth century B.C.E., inscribed with the priestly blessing from Numbers 6:24-26. These scrolls, worn as amulets, represent the oldest known text containing biblical content, showcasing the early use of Scripture in personal devotion.

Ostraca: The Everyday Writing Material

Ostraca, or pottery shards, were a practical and inexpensive alternative for writing. Commonly used for temporary notes, receipts, and messages, ostraca provide a glimpse into daily life in antiquity. In biblical Palestine, the Samaria ostraca (circa 750 B.C.E.) and the Lachish letters (circa 588 B.C.E.) offer valuable historical insights. The Lachish letters, written during Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem, frequently invoke Jehovah’s name, reflecting the faith of those under duress.

This inscription identifies a woman named Noah who was a descendant of Manasseh

Ostraca’s durability ensures their survival, with some even containing New Testament passages, illustrating their continued utility into the early Christian era.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Papyrus: The Foundation of Biblical Manuscripts

Papyrus, derived from the papyrus plant, became the dominant writing material in the ancient world due to its light weight and flexibility. Isaiah 18:2 references “vessels of papyrus,” and Job 8:11 mentions the plant’s growth in marshes, highlighting its familiarity in biblical times. The manufacture of papyrus involved layering strips of the plant’s pith in a crosswise pattern, pressing and drying them to create sheets.

P46 – A papyrus manuscript of 2 Corinthians 4:13–5:4 from about 100-150 C.E.

Papyrus rolls, or scrolls, were the standard format for books in the ancient world. The Greek word for scroll, “biblos,” eventually became the root for “Bible,” underscoring the material’s central role in the transmission of Scripture. Early New Testament writings, such as those referenced in 2 John 12, were likely composed on papyrus.

Leather and Parchment: Durable Alternatives to Papyrus

Leather and parchment, prepared from animal skins, provided more durable alternatives to papyrus. While the Old Testament does not explicitly mention leather as a writing material, its use is well-attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Talmud, which mandated the use of animal skins for Torah scrolls.

A skin of parchment stretched on a frame

Paul’s request for “the parchments” in 2 Timothy 4:13 likely refers to portions of the Old Testament written on prepared skins. Parchment’s durability ensured its dominance over papyrus by the fourth century C.E., becoming the primary medium for biblical manuscripts throughout the Middle Ages.

Writing on Paper

The first use of paper (as opposed to papyrus or parchment) for copying the Bible would have been after the introduction of paper to the Western world, which according to historical records, occurred around the time of the Crusades, approximately in the 12th century.

Here is a detailed breakdown:

89 C.E.: Tsai Lun in China invents paper.
8th Century: Paper becomes known to the Arabs.
12th Century: Paper is introduced into Europe and begins to be used for books, including the Bible.

Given this timeline, the Bible would have likely been first copied onto paper in Europe during the 12th century. However, this would have been after the Gutenberg Bible, which was printed on paper but used the newly invented printing press, was produced in the 15th century. Therefore:

Manuscripts on paper: Likely began in the 12th century.
Printed Bibles on paper: Became common in the 15th century with the advent of the printing press.

Thus, while parchment was used for important documents like the Bible for centuries, paper started to be used for such purposes in Europe from the 12th century onwards, gradually replacing parchment by the 15th century.

Writing Materials and the Bible’s Unique Message

The variety of materials used to preserve Scripture reflects the high value placed on God’s Word. Unlike many ancient texts, which often served administrative or ceremonial purposes, the Bible carries a divine message of hope and guidance. As Psalm 19:7 declares, “The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul,” emphasizing the enduring relevance of Scripture.

From stone to parchment, the Bible’s transmission across diverse materials demonstrates the providence of God in ensuring its preservation for future generations. This enduring legacy underscores the importance of studying and cherishing the Scriptures as the inspired Word of Jehovah.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).