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How Do Semitic Languages Influence Our Understanding of the Old Testament?
The Significance of Semitic Languages in Biblical Studies
The Old Testament, primarily written in Hebrew with portions in Aramaic, emerged from the Semitic language family, a group that includes languages spoken across the ancient Near East. Understanding these languages sheds light on the text’s original meaning, clarifying nuances in vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions. By examining the linguistic landscape in which the Old Testament was written, scholars can more accurately interpret the Scriptures, discerning the intended message conveyed by its human authors under divine inspiration.
This survey of the Semitic languages focuses on key linguistic characteristics, major languages within the Semitic family, and how they contribute to a deeper understanding of the Old Testament text. Knowing the historical context of Hebrew, Aramaic, and related languages allows us to better appreciate the precision and intention behind the words chosen by the authors of Scripture.
Key Characteristics of the Semitic Language Family
The Semitic languages share unique structural characteristics that distinguish them from other language families. These include a root-based vocabulary system, where most words are built around three-consonant roots that convey core meanings. In Hebrew, for instance, the root K-T-B pertains to writing, and from this root come words like katav (he wrote) and ketuvim (writings or Scriptures). This root system allowed for compact expression and a wide range of related meanings, which is significant for understanding the nuances of biblical text.
Another characteristic is the use of guttural sounds, produced in the throat, which feature prominently in Semitic languages. Letters like aleph (א), ayin (ע), and heth (ח) represent sounds that were common in Hebrew and Aramaic but are less familiar to speakers of non-Semitic languages. Recognizing these sounds helps with accurate pronunciation, as well as with understanding phonetic patterns that contribute to wordplay and other stylistic elements in the Old Testament.
Semitic languages also rely on a highly inflected verb system, where slight alterations in a word’s form communicate different aspects of tense, mood, and voice. In biblical Hebrew, for example, the verb forms qal, niphal, piel, and hiphil convey active, passive, intensive, and causative meanings, respectively. These linguistic structures enabled the biblical authors to convey layered meanings, capturing aspects of action, intention, and result that are often essential for interpreting Scripture accurately.
Biblical Hebrew: The Language of the Old Testament
Biblical Hebrew, also known as Classical Hebrew, served as the primary language of the Old Testament texts. Its vocabulary and grammar were uniquely suited to express theological and historical narratives, poetic expressions, and legal texts. The precision and economy of Hebrew allowed the authors to convey complex theological concepts in concise and impactful language.
The Hebrew language itself evolved over time, with scholars identifying at least two main stages within the Old Testament: Early Biblical Hebrew, seen in books like Genesis and Exodus, and Late Biblical Hebrew, evident in books such as Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. These differences highlight shifts in vocabulary and grammar, reflecting the changing linguistic landscape over centuries. For example, certain phrases and idioms in Early Biblical Hebrew faded in later texts, while Aramaic influence began to appear more prominently during and after the Babylonian exile, around the 6th century B.C.E.
Aramaic: The Lingua Franca of the Ancient Near East
Aramaic, a closely related language to Hebrew, played a significant role in the Old Testament. By the time of the Babylonian exile, Aramaic had become the lingua franca of the Near East, used across various cultures for commerce, diplomacy, and administration. Portions of the Old Testament, including parts of Ezra and Daniel, were written in Aramaic, reflecting its prominence during this period. Aramaic’s widespread use also influenced post-exilic Hebrew vocabulary and syntax, as evidenced in later books of the Old Testament.
Aramaic Targum
The Aramaic passages in Daniel, such as Daniel 2:4b–7:28, showcase linguistic elements distinct from Hebrew, providing context for understanding the cultural and political environment during the Babylonian and Persian empires. The use of Aramaic in these sections likely reflects both the official language of the ruling powers and the linguistic realities of the Jewish people living in exile. Additionally, Aramaic phrases and loanwords appear throughout the Old Testament, subtly influencing the Hebrew text and contributing to the development of Hebrew vocabulary.
Ugaritic: Insights into Ancient Hebrew Poetry and Vocabulary
Ugaritic, a language discovered through texts unearthed in Ras Shamra (modern-day Syria), provides valuable insights into Old Testament Hebrew, particularly in understanding Hebrew poetry and parallelism. Ugaritic, a Canaanite language, shares numerous linguistic features with Hebrew, including similar vocabulary, grammatical structures, and poetic forms. The Ugaritic texts, dated to the 14th century B.C.E., include religious and mythological literature that offers context for Hebrew expressions and imagery.
Ugaritic Alphabet
For example, Ugaritic literature contains phrases and poetic devices that closely resemble those found in Psalms and other Hebrew poetry. Understanding Ugaritic parallelism and metaphors aids in interpreting difficult Hebrew passages, especially in the Psalms, where similar techniques appear. The discovery of Ugaritic has also clarified certain Hebrew words and idioms whose meanings were previously uncertain. In Psalm 29, for instance, the phrase “voice of the Lord” (qol YHWH) resonates with Canaanite descriptions of deities, suggesting a deliberate use of cultural parallels to highlight Jehovah’s supremacy over other gods worshiped in the region.
Akkadian: The Language of Ancient Mesopotamia
Akkadian, the language of the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian empires, is among the earliest Semitic languages with a rich written record. Akkadian inscriptions and literature, including the famous Epic of Gilgamesh, contribute to our understanding of the Old Testament’s historical and cultural context. Although Akkadian and Hebrew differ significantly in structure and vocabulary, certain similarities in themes, idioms, and expressions have been noted, particularly in narratives and poetic sections of the Old Testament.
Text of Law in Akkadian by King Niqmepa with dynastic seal Ras Shamra Louvre Museum
For example, Akkadian literature often employs imagery and phrases similar to those found in biblical narratives, particularly in Genesis. The Genesis flood account bears notable parallels with Mesopotamian flood myths, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Atrahasis Epic, though with distinct theological differences that highlight Jehovah’s sovereignty and righteousness. These parallels do not imply that the biblical writers borrowed from Akkadian myths; rather, they reveal a shared cultural environment that shaped ancient Near Eastern literature. By examining Akkadian texts, scholars gain insights into the worldview and literary conventions of the time, helping to illuminate the uniqueness of the biblical account.
Map of the Near East showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire and the general area in which Akkad was located
Phoenician and Moabite: Related Dialects Informing Biblical Hebrew
Phoenician and Moabite are dialects closely related to Hebrew, spoken by neighboring cultures during the biblical period. Inscriptions in these languages, such as the Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele) from the 9th century B.C.E., provide linguistic and historical parallels that enhance our understanding of biblical Hebrew and its development. The Moabite Stone recounts the military victories of King Mesha of Moab, echoing similar accounts found in the historical books of the Old Testament.
Phoenician Writing – 9th Century Stela
The Moabite language closely resembles Hebrew, allowing scholars to compare grammar, vocabulary, and stylistic elements with those found in the Hebrew Bible. Phoenician inscriptions also contribute to understanding the historical context of biblical narratives, as the Phoenicians had close trade and political ties with Israel, particularly during the reigns of David and Solomon. The study of these dialects provides additional confirmation of the reliability of the Old Testament, as the biblical accounts align with external records from surrounding cultures.
The stone not only mentions the name of King Omri of Israel but also, in the 18th line, contains God’s name in the form of the Tetragrammaton. Om’ri. (pupil of Jehovah). 1. Originally, “captain of the host,” to Elah, was afterward, himself, king of Israel, and founder of the third dynasty. (B.C. 926). Omri was engaged in the siege of Gibbethon situated in the tribe of Dan, which had been occupied by the Philistines. As soon as the army heard of Elah’s death, they proclaimed Omri, king. Thereupon, he broke up the siege of Gibbethon and attacked Tirzah, where Zimri was holding his court as king of Israel. The city was taken, and Zimri perished in the flames of the palace, after a reign of seven days. Omri, however, was not allowed to establish his dynasty, without a struggle against Tibni, whom “half the people,” 1Ki_16:21, desired to raise to the throne. The civil war lasted four years. Compare 1Ki_16:15 with 1Ki_16:23. After the defeat and death of Tibni, Omri reigned for six years in Tirzah. At Samaria, Omri reigned for six years more. He seems to have been a vigorous and unscrupulous ruler, anxious to strengthen his dynasty, by intercourse and alliances with foreign states.
The Influence of Egyptian on Old Testament Hebrew
Although Egyptian is not a Semitic language, its influence on Old Testament Hebrew is evident due to Israel’s extended presence in Egypt. The Israelites’ time in Egypt, as described in Exodus, likely introduced Egyptian vocabulary and cultural references into Hebrew. For example, certain words related to government and trade appear to have Egyptian origins, reflecting the historical interactions between these cultures.
Egyptian cultural elements, such as the practice of building monuments or the use of symbols like the “reed and brick,” also appear in the Old Testament. By understanding these cultural references, readers gain a deeper insight into the experiences of the Israelites in Egypt and the ways in which these experiences shaped their identity and language. Additionally, archaeological findings, such as the Merneptah Stele (c. 1208 B.C.E.), provide external validation of Israel’s presence in the region, supporting the biblical narrative.
The Role of Semitic Languages in Textual Interpretation
The study of Semitic languages enables scholars to make more accurate textual interpretations by providing clarity on ambiguous words, idioms, and grammatical structures in the Old Testament. Many Hebrew words have meanings that are enriched or clarified by comparison with their counterparts in other Semitic languages. For instance, certain words and phrases that are rare in Hebrew appear more frequently in Ugaritic or Akkadian, offering insights into their meanings and usage.
Furthermore, understanding the historical and linguistic context of the Old Testament aids in recognizing idiomatic expressions that would have been familiar to ancient readers but may be obscure to modern readers. For example, Hebrew idioms involving “hand” or “face” often convey metaphorical meanings, such as power or presence, that are better understood through knowledge of Semitic language conventions.
Enhancing Theological Understanding Through Language Studies
Theological concepts in the Old Testament, such as covenant, holiness, and justice, are embedded in the language and culture of the ancient Near East. By studying the original languages, scholars and readers can gain a more profound understanding of these concepts as they were understood by the biblical authors. The Hebrew term chesed, often translated as “steadfast love” or “lovingkindness,” carries a rich meaning that includes loyalty, mercy, and covenant faithfulness—concepts that are foundational to Israel’s understanding of Jehovah’s relationship with His people.
Through linguistic study, Christians today can gain a fuller understanding of Jehovah’s attributes and His dealings with humanity, as expressed in the language and thought patterns of the Old Testament. This understanding reinforces the timeless relevance of Scripture, providing a foundation for theological reflection and application.
Preserving the Integrity of the Biblical Text
The study of Semitic languages not only aids in interpretation but also plays a crucial role in preserving the integrity of the biblical text. Textual criticism, which involves comparing different manuscripts and linguistic variations, allows scholars to identify and correct copying errors that may have occurred over centuries of transmission. By examining the original languages alongside ancient translations, such as the Septuagint (Greek) and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Hebrew and Aramaic), scholars work to ensure that modern translations remain faithful to the original text.
Understanding the Semitic language family and its influence on the Old Testament enhances our ability to accurately interpret and apply the Scriptures. It allows us to grasp the nuances of the original languages, providing a foundation for a deeper, more precise understanding of Jehovah’s Word and its teachings. Through the lens of linguistic study, we appreciate not only the literary beauty of the Old Testament but also the divine truths it conveys to all generations.
About the Author
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
