Introduction

Nippur, known in ancient Sumerian as Nibru and recorded logographically as 𒂗𒆤𒆠 (EN.LÍLKI), meaning “Enlil City,” was one of the most significant cities in ancient Mesopotamia. It was dedicated to the worship of the Sumerian god Enlil, the “Lord Wind,” who was regarded as the ruler of the cosmos and subordinate only to An, the supreme god in Sumerian mythology. Nippur’s location is modern-day Nuffar, approximately 200 kilometers south of Baghdad and about 96.54 kilometers southeast of Babylon. This city, despite its sacred stature, was never a political hegemon. It, instead, served as a critical religious center whose influence spanned various historical periods, reflecting the ebb and flow of power throughout Mesopotamian history.

The ancient history of Nippur stretches back to the Ubaid period (circa 6500–3800 B.C.E.), through the Uruk period (circa 4000–3100 B.C.E.), and the Jemdet Nasr period (circa 3100–2900 B.C.E.). The city’s continuous habitation over millennia attests to its religious significance. Despite its religious stature, its original name remains uncertain, as it predates most known historical records. Nippur’s history is a testimony to the intricate interplay between religion and politics in ancient Mesopotamia.

History of Nippur: A Sacred but Not Political City

The uniqueness of Nippur lies in the fact that it was never the political capital of Mesopotamia. However, its religious prominence meant that control over the city was seen as a source of legitimacy for rulers of other city-states and empires. Nippur’s importance stemmed from its association with the Ekur, the temple dedicated to Enlil, which was believed to hold the power to confer divine approval, or “kingship,” upon monarchs. As a result, control of Nippur was frequently sought by ambitious rulers seeking to legitimize their authority.

The city was home to another major deity, Ninurta, the son of Enlil, who was venerated at the E-shumesha temple. Ninurta was considered a god of war and agriculture, reflecting Nippur’s spiritual significance in both celestial and earthly domains. Archaeological records, such as the Tummal Chronicle, offer insights into the rulers who contributed to the temple’s upkeep. The Chronicle lists kings like Enmebaragesi of Kish as the first to build the temple of Enlil, followed by other influential kings such as Aga of Kish, Mesannepada of Ur, and Gilgamesh of Uruk.

The desire to maintain Nippur as a religious center persisted through multiple dynasties. Each ruler who claimed power sought to honor Enlil by contributing to the maintenance of the Ekur temple, signifying their devotion to the god and seeking his favor for their reign. Mesopotamian rulers, even those from distant cities, held the city and its temple in high regard, which is evident from votive offerings and inscriptions found throughout the region.

Akkadian, Ur III, and Old Babylonian Periods

By the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E., Nippur came under the control of the Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon of Akkad. Despite their political dominance, the rulers of Akkad recognized the importance of maintaining the religious significance of Nippur. Numerous votive objects, inscribed with the names of Sargon, his son Rimush, and his grandson Naram-Sin, have been uncovered at the site, indicating their reverence for the city and its temple. Naram-Sin, in particular, undertook significant restoration projects at Nippur, rebuilding the Ekur temple and reinforcing the city’s walls, which were 17.5 meters wide.

A noteworthy event during Naram-Sin’s reign was a revolt involving several Mesopotamian cities, including Nippur, led by its ruler Amar-enlila. Naram-Sin’s victory over the rebelling cities is recorded in a tablet detailing his successful suppression of the revolt in nine battles. This event underscores Nippur’s occasional attempts at autonomy, although it was more often a vassal to more powerful city-states.

The Akkadian dynasty eventually fell, and Nippur entered a new phase under the Third Dynasty of Ur (circa 2112–2004 B.C.E.). Ur-Nammu, the founder of the dynasty, left a lasting architectural legacy at Nippur by giving the Ekur temple its final characteristic form. Ur-Nammu’s construction projects at Nippur included a massive terrace, 12 meters high, and a ziggurat made of three stages of dry bricks. The ziggurat served as the central shrine for Enlil, and its orientation with the cardinal points of the compass reflected the Mesopotamian belief in cosmic order.

Ur-Nammu’s successors, particularly his son Shulgi, continued to contribute to the city’s growth. Nippur became an essential administrative and religious center for the Ur III dynasty. The discovery of a clay tablet containing a sketch map of the city offers a glimpse into its layout during this period. The map depicts a city within a city, with its quarters divided by canals, surrounded by quays and walls. The Ekur temple occupied a prominent position, dominating the southeastern part of the city.

However, Nippur’s fortunes declined following the fall of the Ur III dynasty. The city suffered considerable destruction at the hands of the Elamites, who invaded the region and contributed to the temple’s ruin. Despite this, Nippur remained a religious center, with subsequent rulers, such as Rim-Sin I of Larsa, continuing to honor Enlil. Hammurabi’s establishment of the Babylonian Empire marked a shift in religious power, with Babylon becoming the new religious capital and Marduk assuming the role of chief deity. Despite this, Nippur retained its symbolic importance as the ancient city of Enlil.

Kassite through Sassanid Periods

The Kassite dynasty, which rose to power in the 2nd millennium B.C.E., brought a renewed interest in restoring Nippur’s former glory. Several Kassite kings undertook significant restoration efforts at the Ekur temple, and thousands of inscriptions from this period attest to their devotion to the city’s gods. One of the most notable projects was the construction of the Ekurigibarra, a new temple within the Ekur complex, built by Kurigalzu I around 1375 B.C.E. The Kassites viewed Nippur as a critical religious center and sought to restore its prestige.

Despite these efforts, Nippur once again faced periods of neglect, particularly following the shifting course of the Euphrates River in the 12th century B.C.E., which led to a decline in the city’s prominence. However, Nippur’s fortunes were revived under the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century B.C.E., when Sargon II captured Babylonia and revitalized the city. Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, also contributed to the restoration of Nippur, rebuilding the ziggurat to greater heights and restoring the Ekur temple to its former grandeur.

Nippur’s decline was gradual following the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The city saw limited construction during the Neo-Babylonian and Persian periods. By the time of the Seleucid period (circa 4th century B.C.E.), Nippur had become a fortress, with massive walls built around the temple complex. The ziggurat, once the central shrine of Enlil, was repurposed as a military stronghold, marking a significant shift in the city’s role from a religious to a strategic location.

The final chapter of Nippur’s history occurred during the Parthian period (circa 250 C.E.), when the city continued to function as a fortress. However, with the rise of the Sassanid Empire, Nippur fell into decay, its temples and structures abandoned and left to the sands of time. Today, the ruins of Nippur remain a testament to its former glory, offering valuable insights into the religious and political history of ancient Mesopotamia.

How Does Archaeology Unveil the Ancient City of Nippur?

Nippur’s Geographical and Structural Layout

Nippur, located southeast of Baghdad, was situated on both sides of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, which was one of the earliest courses of the Euphrates River. The canal bed divided Nippur into the East and West Mounds, two distinct sections of the city that have yielded significant archaeological discoveries over the decades. These ruins, known to the Arabs as Nuffar, occupy a large area, reaching about 130 hectares during the Ur III and Kassite periods. Nippur’s highest point is a conical hill rising roughly 30 meters above the surrounding plain, referred to as Bint el-Amiror (“prince’s daughter”). This massive complex of ruins stands as a silent testimony to Nippur’s importance as a religious hub in ancient Mesopotamia.

The site’s vastness and complexity reflect the city’s ancient stature, particularly as a religious center where the Ekur temple, dedicated to the god Enlil, was located. The canal’s position between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided Nippur with a strategic and sustainable location, essential for its growth and survival through multiple millennia.

The First Excavations of Nippur

Nippur’s importance in the historical and religious narrative of Mesopotamia made it a target for early archaeological expeditions. Sir Austen Henry Layard, known for his discoveries at Nineveh and Nimrud, made the first recorded exploration of the site in 1851. Layard’s brief work set the stage for more extensive excavations in the coming decades.

The first full-scale excavation began under the leadership of John Punnett Peters, John Henry Haynes, and Hermann Volrath Hilprecht, from the University of Pennsylvania. These expeditions, conducted between 1889 and 1900, uncovered thousands of cuneiform tablets from a smaller mound known as “tablet hill.” This mound, measuring around 7.5 meters in height and 52 square meters in area, was located southeast of the temple mound. The discovery of these tablets contributed greatly to the understanding of the administrative and religious life of Nippur.

One of the most extraordinary finds during these early excavations was a true arch, one of the world’s earliest examples, demonstrating the advanced architectural knowledge possessed by the people of Nippur. This period of excavation also yielded objects from the Parthian era, including glass fragments of votive axes from the Kassite period. Artifacts of significant value included inscriptions of late Kassite rulers such as Kurigalzu II, solidifying the importance of Nippur through various historical epochs.

Excavations in the 20th Century: Oriental Institute

Between 1948 and 1990, the Oriental Institute of Chicago conducted 19 seasons of excavation at Nippur, often collaborating with the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the American Schools of Oriental Research. These expeditions were notable for clearing large archaeological dumps left by earlier excavations, making way for new discoveries, including Early Dynastic bowls, cuneiform tablets, and brick stamps.

One of the most critical findings during this period was the discovery of foundation deposits in the temples of Inanna and Ekur, which included statues of kings Shulgi and Ur-Nammu, pivotal figures from the Ur III dynasty. These deposits provided insights into the religious practices of the time, particularly regarding the veneration of the gods through temple construction and renovation.

Inanna’s temple, originally built in the Early Dynastic period, was continuously expanded and reconstructed through subsequent periods, with evidence of activity all the way to Parthian times. Among the most important finds was a tablet from the fourth year of the Kassite king Shagarakti-Shuriash, as well as another dated to the 44th year of Shulgi’s reign, linking Nippur to broader regional and dynastic developments. Additional discoveries, such as an Indus Valley stamp seal, demonstrated Nippur’s long-standing interactions with distant cultures and trade networks.

Excavations continued in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Preliminary efforts were restarted in 2018 under McGuire Gibson, and further excavation work was conducted in 2019 by Abbas Alizadeh. This recent focus has centered on a major Parthian period building and a small Late Sassanid house, signaling the ongoing importance of Nippur into the later periods of antiquity.

The Ziggurat of Nippur

One of the most prominent structures in Nippur is the Ziggurat of Ur-Gur, an impressive edifice that was extensively excavated and documented. The ziggurat stands at 25 meters high with a rectangular base measuring 39 by 58 meters. Constructed in three stages of dry brick and faced with kiln-fired bricks laid in bitumen, the ziggurat’s northern corner points 12 degrees east of magnetic north, demonstrating an advanced understanding of architectural and geographical principles.

The water conduit system within the ziggurat reveals a high degree of engineering skill. Built with baked bricks 1 meter in breadth and 3 meters in depth, the conduit was designed to drain water from the upper levels of the structure. A plaster of bitumen coated the conduit base, which sloped outward with gutters to carry off water. This system served to protect the foundation from rain damage, a testament to the builders’ foresight in maintaining the structure’s longevity.

The pavement surrounding the ziggurat formed a cruciform shape, further reinforcing the symbolic and architectural importance of the site. Extending 2.4 meters below the ziggurat’s foundation, these pavements connected to the lowest stage of the structure and provided additional protection against water and weathering.

The Temple of Enlil

The Temple of Enlil, located northeast of the ziggurat, played a central role in the religious life of Nippur. Stratigraphic excavation allowed archaeologists to reconstruct the chronological sequence of the temple, which dated back to the Ur III period. Built by Ur-Nammu, the temple was restored and rebuilt by subsequent kings over the centuries, reflecting its continuous religious significance.

Measuring 45 by 21 meters, the rectangular temple had entrances on both the northeast and southwest walls. The floors were paved with square bricks, each measuring 37 centimeters, while the walls, which varied in thickness from 3.35 to 3.95 meters, were constructed with unbaked bricks reinforced with straw and mud mortar. Although no windows were preserved above floor level, the structure likely had openings to allow light into the temple, as it is estimated the walls may have reached 13.2 meters in height.

Interestingly, evidence from the Ur III period suggests the temple may not have been primarily used for worship. Burning marks found in the cella (room 13) and adjacent chambers indicate that the temple likely served as a “kitchen temple” where food was prepared for the gods. This theory is supported by inscriptions describing the temple’s function in preparing divine meals, rather than serving as a space for direct worship of the gods.

The Temple of Gula

In 1990, excavators identified a building in area WA as the Temple of Gula, the goddess of healing and the consort of Ninurta. The temple had its origins in the Isin-Larsa period and was later rebuilt during the Kassite, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian periods. The discovery of the Temple of Gula is significant, as it reveals the religious diversity present in Nippur and the broader Mesopotamian region. Gula’s association with healing underscores the role of religion in addressing not only spiritual concerns but also physical ailments.

The Murashu Archive

A large palace from the Seleucid period was excavated near the temple, and within this complex, a vast number of inscribed tablets from various periods were discovered. These included temple archives from the Kassite period and commercial archives from the Achaemenid Empire. The latter, known as the Murashu archive, provides invaluable insights into the economic life of Nippur during the Achaemenid period.

The Murashu family acted as commercial agents for the government, leasing large plots of farmland and renting them out to smaller landholders. The contracts, dated between 454 B.C.E. and 404 B.C.E., reflect a diverse populace, as many of the names in the documents were non-Babylonian. The Murashu archive offers a glimpse into the economic strategies of the time, including the subdivision of farmland and the renting of plots to local farmers and foreign settlers alike.

By 423/422 B.C.E., the Murashu family had amassed substantial wealth, taking in approximately 20,000 kilograms (or shekels) of silver. However, their business practices had a detrimental effect on the economy, as they contributed to the concentration of land in fewer hands, leading to the bankruptcy of many smaller landowners.

Site TA

Located in the southeastern part of Nippur, Site TA is a residential area that dates back to the early second millennium B.C.E. Excavated between 1948 and 1952, the site was partially abandoned due to an economic crisis in 1739 B.C.E. and fully vacated by 1720 B.C.E. Archaeologists uncovered a community of irregular buildings, most of which were one-story structures. However, three of the houses had stairs leading to an upper level, suggesting rooftop access rather than a second story.

A total of 1,591 tablets were found at Site TA, with most being private documents and educational materials, indicating that the area was residential. One of the houses, known as House F, was identified as a scribal school due to the discovery of 1,407 tablets within its confines. This suggests that education and literacy were important aspects of life in Nippur, even among its residential quarters.

Organic materials found at the site indicate that animal husbandry may have been practiced in the area. These findings suggest that the residents of Site TA were small private landowners who engaged in a mix of agricultural and commercial activities.

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