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The study of the transmission of the Old Testament (OT) text begins with the origin of Hebrew writing and its development through time. This investigation extends to the broader history of writing within human civilization, particularly focusing on the ancient Near East, where the foundational systems of writing emerged.

Cuneiform and Alphabetic Signs—Ellis R. Brotzman; Eric J. Tully

Sumerian Writing

The history of writing in the ancient Near East begins with the Sumerians towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE. The Sumerian writing system was initially pictographic, using signs to represent objects and ideas. This system evolved to include ideograms and phonetic elements, enabling more complex expression. Early Sumerian texts often consisted of sequences of pictograms that conveyed stories or lists.

The Sumerian writing system had several limitations, including the large number of signs required and the existence of polyphones and homophones. To address these issues, the Sumerians developed determinatives—special signs indicating the general class of a word—and phonetic complements, which aided in pronunciation and reduced ambiguity.

The Sumerian writing system consisted of about 600 signs, of which around 100 to 150 were syllabic signs. The use of these signs allowed for a more versatile and expressive writing system, but it also made the system complex and difficult to learn. Despite these challenges, the Sumerian writing system was highly influential and laid the groundwork for subsequent writing systems in the region.

Akkadian Writing

The Akkadians, a Semitic people, adopted the Sumerian writing system around the middle of the third millennium BCE. This script, known as cuneiform, consisted of wedge-shaped signs created by pressing a stylus into clay tablets. The Akkadian adaptation of Sumerian writing involved a greater use of syllabic signs. The system included signs for vowels, open syllables (consonant + vowel), closed syllables (consonant + vowel + consonant), and ideograms.

Text of Law in Akkadian by King Niqmepa with dynastic seal Ras Shamra Louvre Museum

West Semitic Scripts—Ellis R. Brotzman; Eric J. Tully

The Akkadian writing system comprised around 700 signs, of which approximately 100 were syllabic signs. The inclusion of syllabic signs made the writing system more efficient and adaptable to the Akkadian language. The Akkadian language is important for biblical studies, as it provides context for various OT personages and events. Akkadian texts, including creation and flood narratives, legal documents, and royal annals, offer valuable comparative material for understanding the Hebrew Bible.

One significant aspect of Akkadian writing is its use of ideograms, which were borrowed from the Sumerians. These ideograms were often pronounced as Akkadian words when the texts were read. For example, an ideogram representing “head” might be read as “rešu” in Akkadian, much like how modern numeral symbols can be read differently in various languages.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Egyptian Writing

Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, dating from around 3200 BCE, is another significant system in the ancient Near East. This writing system used ideograms and phonograms and retained its pictographic character throughout its history. The development of hieratic and demotic scripts represented simplified forms of hieroglyphics, allowing for more practical use on papyrus and other materials.

The Egyptian writing system consisted of about 700 signs, of which around 100 were syllabic signs. Unlike the Sumerian and Akkadian systems, Egyptian writing maintained its pictographic character, with signs representing both sounds and concepts. The system included ideograms for objects and actions, as well as phonograms for representing sounds.

Egyptian writing differed from Mesopotamian scripts in several ways, including its lack of vowel representation. This feature was shared with early Biblical Hebrew writing practices, reflecting a broader Semitic tradition. Hieratic, a cursive script derived from hieroglyphics, was used for everyday writing on papyrus, while demotic, a later cursive script, emerged around 700 BCE for more administrative and literary purposes.

Ugaritic Writing

Ugaritic writing, developed around 1400 BCE in the city of Ugarit, is an early example of an alphabetic script. The Ugaritic script consisted of 30 signs, each representing a single consonant or vowel sound. This system allowed for more efficient and flexible writing compared to the complex systems of Sumerian and Akkadian.

Ancient Writing System—Ellis R. Brotzman; Eric J. Tully

The Ugaritic script was written in cuneiform on clay tablets, similar to the Akkadian system. However, the simplicity and efficiency of the Ugaritic alphabet made it a significant precursor to later alphabetic scripts. Ugaritic texts include a wide range of literary, administrative, and religious documents, providing valuable insights into the culture and language of ancient Ugarit.

Proto-Canaanite Writing

Proto-Canaanite writing, developed around the 18th century BCE, is considered the earliest form of alphabetic writing. This script consisted of about 28 signs, each representing a single consonant sound. The Proto-Canaanite script was highly adaptable and could be written in various directions, including right-to-left, left-to-right, and vertically.

Oldest Canaanite sentence carved into an ivory comb from Lachish. Courtesy Dafna Gazit, IAA.

The development of the Proto-Canaanite script marked a significant advancement in the history of writing. Unlike the complex systems of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Egyptian, the Proto-Canaanite script was simpler and more accessible. This innovation allowed for the spread of literacy and writing throughout the ancient Near East and laid the foundation for later alphabetic scripts, including Phoenician, Hebrew, and Aramaic.

Phoenician Writing

The Phoenician script, developed around 1000 BCE, was a direct descendant of the Proto-Canaanite script. This script consisted of 22 signs, each representing a single consonant sound. The Phoenician script was written from right to left and was used extensively for trade and communication throughout the Mediterranean region.

The simplicity and efficiency of the Phoenician script made it highly influential, and it served as the basis for several other alphabetic scripts, including Greek and Latin. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in various locations, including Israel, demonstrating the widespread use and impact of this script.

Paleo-Hebrew Writing

The Paleo-Hebrew script, first documented in the 9th century BCE, was a direct descendant of the Phoenician script. This script retained the same number of signs as the Phoenician script but with slight variations in letter shapes. The Paleo-Hebrew script was used by the Israelites for writing and copying the OT until the early 6th century BCE.

During the Babylonian exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic script for writing and copying Scripture. This transition was influenced by the widespread use of Aramaic as the lingua franca of the region. By the 3rd century BCE, a new Jewish variant of the Aramaic script developed, known as the Jewish or square script. This script became the standard for copying the OT texts and is still used in modern Hebrew writing.

Aramaic Writing

The Aramaic script, developed around the 10th century BCE, was a direct descendant of the Phoenician script. This script consisted of 22 signs, each representing a single consonant sound. The Aramaic script was written from right to left and became the lingua franca of the ancient Near East during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.

The widespread use of Aramaic and its script had a significant impact on the transmission of the OT texts. During the Babylonian exile, the Jews began to use the Aramaic script for writing and copying Scripture. This transition facilitated communication and trade with neighboring peoples and influenced the development of the Jewish or square script used in later OT manuscripts.

Greek and Latin Writing

The Greek alphabet, developed around the 8th century BCE, was a direct descendant of the Phoenician script. The Greek alphabet consisted of 24 letters, including both consonants and vowels. This innovation allowed for more precise representation of the Greek language and facilitated the spread of literacy and writing throughout the Greek-speaking world.

The Latin alphabet, developed around the 7th century BCE, was a direct descendant of the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet consisted of 23 letters, including both consonants and vowels. The simplicity and efficiency of the Latin alphabet made it highly influential, and it served as the basis for several other alphabetic scripts, including modern European alphabets.

The development of Greek and Latin writing had a significant impact on the transmission and preservation of ancient texts, including the OT. The use of alphabetic scripts facilitated the recording and dissemination of biblical texts, ensuring their availability to a wider audience and aiding in their preservation through the centuries.

Writing in the Old Testament

Writing plays a central role in the theology of the OT. It is through writing that God’s actions, covenant relationships, and expectations are documented and transmitted to future generations. The earliest references to writing in the OT include JHVH’s command to Moses to write down promises and covenant stipulations, emphasizing the importance of written records as reminders and witnesses.

The significance of writing in ancient Israel does not necessarily imply widespread literacy. Professional scribes, often from the elite class, were responsible for copying and maintaining texts. Scribes underwent formal training, ensuring high standards of accuracy and consistency in their work. This tradition of meticulous copying practices has its roots in Babylonian scribal practices.

Various materials were used for writing, depending on the purpose and audience. Stone and metal were used for monumental inscriptions, while clay, wood, papyrus, and leather served for everyday writing and longer documents. The Dead Sea Scrolls, found in the Judean Desert, provide valuable evidence of scribal practices and materials used in ancient Israel.

Understanding the history and development of writing systems in the ancient Near East enhances our comprehension of the transmission and preservation of the OT text. The evolution from pictographic and cuneiform scripts to alphabetic writing facilitated the recording and dissemination of biblical texts, ensuring their availability to a wider audience and aiding in their preservation through the centuries.

The importance of writing in ancient Israel is evident in several biblical passages. For example, in Exodus 17:14, JHVH instructs Moses to write down a promise to blot out the memory of Amalek. This written record serves as a reminder of God’s promise and is intended to be passed down to future generations. Similarly, in Exodus 24:4, Moses writes down all the words of JHVH’s covenant with Israel and reads them to the people, emphasizing the importance of written records in maintaining the covenant relationship.

In Deuteronomy 17:18-19, JHVH commands each king of Israel to have a copy of the Torah and to read from it daily, highlighting the central role of writing in the spiritual and political life of the nation. Other passages, such as Deuteronomy 6, Joshua 4, and Psalm 78, emphasize the necessity of instructing future generations about JHVH’s character, power, deeds, and expectations through written records.

The copying and transmission of OT texts were carried out by professional scribes, who were trained in sophisticated techniques to ensure accuracy and consistency. These scribes were often associated with the palace or the temple and were responsible for taking dictation, recording decrees, maintaining records, and copying documents. They employed methods such as extreme consistency in writing individual letters, checking for consistent spelling, and correcting errors to maintain the integrity of the texts.

Scribes used various materials for writing, including stone, metal, clay, wood, papyrus, and leather. Stone was used for monumental inscriptions and steles, while metal tablets were used for special documents. Clay was a common material for writing short documents and lists, and wooden tablets covered in wax were used for reusable writing surfaces.

Longer documents were typically written on papyrus or leather. Papyrus was made by drying thin strips of the papyrus plant and laying them in two layers at perpendicular angles. It was less durable and more expensive than leather, but it allowed for limited erasures. Leather was prepared through a labor-intensive process involving removing hair, curing in saltwater, and treating with natural tanning solutions. Scribes used black ink made of soot mixed with oil and vegetable material or red ink created with mercury sulfide.

The Dead Sea Scrolls provide valuable evidence of scribal practices and materials used in ancient Israel. These texts include literary works written on leather and administrative documents written on papyrus, demonstrating the use of different materials for different purposes.

The evolution of writing systems in the ancient Near East, from pictographic and cuneiform scripts to alphabetic writing, significantly influenced the transmission and preservation of OT texts. The availability of alphabetic scripts facilitated the recording and dissemination of biblical texts, ensuring their accessibility to a wider audience and aiding in their preservation through the centuries.

As we practice textual criticism, we enter a world of scribes, changing scripts, and letters in ink on leather parchment. Analyzing the ancient text of the OT involves identifying errors that might have crept in during the copying process and reconstructing the final, authoritative text. Knowledge of scribal practices, such as spelling conventions, word divisions, abbreviations, and corrections, allows us to weigh the evidence and better understand the transmission of the OT text.

In conclusion, the history of writing in the ancient Near East provides essential context for understanding the transmission and preservation of the OT text. The development of writing systems, from Sumerian pictographs to alphabetic scripts, facilitated the recording and dissemination of biblical texts. Professional scribes played a crucial role in maintaining the accuracy and integrity of these texts, ensuring their preservation through meticulous copying practices. The availability of alphabetic scripts, such as Proto-Canaanite, Phoenician, Paleo-Hebrew, and Aramaic, greatly enhanced the accessibility and dissemination of OT texts, allowing them to be passed down to future generations.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).