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Classical Historians: How Reliable Are They?

Many ancient secular historians support the Bible’s historical accuracy, affirming the people, places, and events described within it. These works serve as valuable external sources, bridging the gap between sacred and secular accounts. Understanding their contributions helps provide a fuller picture of ancient times and underscores the reliability of the biblical record.

Classical Historians: Trustworthy?

Historians from Ancient Greece and Rome are heavily relied upon by modern scholars to fill gaps or confirm data about the ancient world. Some scholars believe these “classical” authorities offer a more dependable basis for chronology than the Bible. Therefore, it’s essential to examine these early sources. How accurate and dependable are they?

Since the late 18th century, institutions of higher learning have extensively studied the writings of these “classical” historians—figures like Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, and Plutarch. Generations of students have been taught to prefer these ancient writers’ historical testimony over that of the Holy Scriptures, even though many of these students are professed Christians.

Isn’t it necessary, then, to scrutinize these secular sources more closely? We should be interested not only in their general worth but also in their motives for writing and whether they consistently provided accurate facts and dates. Were these men striving for accuracy and truth, or were some primarily seeking fame or merely entertaining?

Accuracy or Popularity?

Herodotus, a Greek historian of the fifth century B.C.E., is often called “the father of history.” He certainly initiated a new trend in recording history with his imaginative and broad scope. As a storyteller, he excels. However, researchers today are concerned about certain aspects of his work. According to Professor A. W. Ahl in his “Outline of Persian History,” “A large number of inaccuracies are found in his reports.”

The Encyclopædia Britannica provides a relevant critique: “The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of military operations, and to appreciate the importance of chronology. . . . most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless chronology. Even for the fifth century [his own era], the data which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous.”

While historians owe much to Herodotus for preserving many facts and dates, some of which are accurate, there is no reason to accept all his data as infallibly true.

Xenophon, another Greek chronicler who reached adulthood by the end of the fifth century B.C.E., wrote “Cyropaedia,” which has been described as “a political and philosophical romance.” Scholars note that in writing it, Xenophon “had little or nothing to build upon except the floating stories and traditions of the East that had gathered around the figure of the great Persian hero-king [Cyrus the younger].” It is also claimed that “a distinct moral purpose, to which literal truth is sacrificed, runs through the work.”

In his “Hellenica,” or Greek history, Xenophon is accused of displaying “unmistakable traces of a pettiness of mind and narrowness of view very far below the dignity of a historian.” There are “serious omissions and defects in the work, which greatly detract from its value.”

On the other hand, Xenophon’s works have their merits. “His description of places and of relative distances is very minute and painstaking. The researches of modern travelers attest to his general accuracy.” However, geographical accuracy alone is not enough to elevate his writings to a position rivaling the Bible in matters of chronological history.

Historian Ctesias, who also lived in the fifth century B.C.E., wrote “Persica,” which claims to be a history of Persia drawn from royal archives. George Rawlinson, in his “Seven Great Monarchies” (Volume 2, page 85), accuses Ctesias of deliberately extending the period of the Median monarchy “by the conscious use of a system of duplication. Each king, or period, in Herodotus occurs in the list of Ctesias twice—a transparent device, clumsily cloaked by the cheap expedient of a liberal invention of names.” Ctesias’s testimony is also contradicted by the priest-historian Berossus, the philosopher Aristotle (4th century B.C.E.), and recently discovered cuneiform inscriptions.

How reliable, then, were these early historians? They were not so accurate and trustworthy that their data should go unchecked against other reliable facts. The Encyclopædia Britannica notes that Thucydides, a Greek historian of the same fifth century B.C.E., criticized chroniclers for caring only about popularity and not making their narratives trustworthy. However, Thucydides might have been somewhat severe in his judgment.

Thucydides: An Exception

Thucydides is often seen as an exception to the inaccuracies and carelessness found in many “classical” historians. The Encyclopædia Britannica praises him, stating, “Thucydides stands alone among the men of his own days… in the width of mental grasp which could seize the general significance of particular events… In contrast with [his] predecessors, Thucydides has subjected his material to the most searching scrutiny.” Similarly, The Encyclopedia Americana (1956 edition, Volume 26, page 596) notes, “As a historian, Thucydides holds the foremost place. He was painstaking and indefatigable in collecting and sifting facts, brief and terse in narrating them. His style is full of dignity and replete with condensed meaning.”

Thucydides’ meticulous and thorough approach to documenting the Peloponnesian War makes him a more dependable historian compared to many of his contemporaries. His careful examination and critical assessment of facts contribute to his reputation for reliability. However, even his work should be evaluated critically to ensure the accuracy and dependability of his accounts.

Historians of the Classical Period

The term “classical” refers to the period and culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Besides recording Greek and Roman history, the writings of certain classical historians are used by modern historians to fill in gaps or confirm data about ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Syria, and Palestine. These historians often documented events that intersect with biblical history, offering additional context and corroboration.

Greek Historians:

Herodotus (c. 484-425 B.C.E.): Known as the “Father of History,” Herodotus wrote “Histories,” which explores the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars. His accounts provide valuable insights into the cultures and events of the ancient Near East, including the histories of Egypt and Persia. This context is crucial for understanding the broader historical background of Old Testament events.

Thucydides (c. 471-401 B.C.E.): Renowned for his critical approach and strict evidence standards, Thucydides authored “The History of the Peloponnesian War,” detailing the conflict between Athens and Sparta. His meticulous documentation of Greek politics, war, and culture helps contextualize the Greek world that interacted with ancient Israel and Judah.

Xenophon (c. 431-352 B.C.E.): A student of Socrates, Xenophon is known for his historical and philosophical writings, including “Anabasis” and “Hellenica.” His accounts of Persian and Greek history offer perspectives on the geopolitical dynamics of the region, providing background to events and figures mentioned in the Bible.

Ctesias (5th-4th century B.C.E.): A physician at the Persian court, Ctesias wrote “Persica,” a history of Persia, and “Indica,” about India. While his works are sometimes criticized for inaccuracy, they provide details about the Persian Empire, which played a significant role in Jewish history, especially during the time of Esther and the post-exilic period.

Later Historians:

Strabo (1st century B.C.E.): In “Geographica,” Strabo described the known world, including references to places and events relevant to biblical narratives.

Diodorus Siculus (1st century B.C.E.): His “Bibliotheca historica” is an important source for the history of the ancient world, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia.

Plutarch (1st-2nd centuries C.E.): In “Parallel Lives,” Plutarch provides biographies of significant Greek and Roman figures, offering insights into the historical backdrop of the New Testament era.

Roman Historians:

Titus Livius (Livy) (59 B.C.E.–17 C.E.): Livy’s monumental work “Ab Urbe Condita” traces Rome’s history from its legendary founding to his own time. His detailed accounts of Roman politics, culture, and military conquests help contextualize the New Testament period, particularly the Roman occupation of Judea.

Tacitus (c. 56–c. 120 C.E.): Considered one of Rome’s greatest historians, Tacitus wrote “Annals” and “Histories,” covering the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus to the First Jewish-Roman War. His works provide invaluable information on the political and social environment of the early Christian era, including references to Jesus, John the Baptist, and early Christians.

Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (1st Cent . B.C.E.): A contemporary of Livy, Trogus authored “Historiae Philippicae,” a universal history that survives only in summary by Justin. It offers insights into the histories of Macedonia, the Near East, and other regions impacting biblical narratives.

Pliny the Elder (23-79 C.E.): In “Naturalis Historia,” Pliny compiled an encyclopedia of knowledge on various topics. His references to the geography, flora, fauna, and peoples of the Roman Empire provide a backdrop to the world described in the Bible.

Sextus Julius Africanus (3rd cent. C.E.): Likely born in Libya, Africanus was an early Christian historian who wrote “Chronographiai,” a five-volume set of world history. His work sought to synchronize biblical events with historical chronology, making it a valuable resource for understanding the intersection of biblical and secular history.

Other Significant Sources

Manetho (3rd Cent. B.C.E.) and Berossus (3rd Cent. B.C.E.): Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian, compiled a history of Egypt that helps establish a dynastic chronology often used to date biblical events. Berossus, a Babylonian priest, wrote a history of Babylon, referencing events and figures mentioned in the Bible, such as the Flood and the Tower of Babel.

Josephus (37-100 C.E.): A Jewish historian whose works are crucial for understanding the first century C.E., Josephus wrote “The Jewish War” and “Antiquities of the Jews.” His accounts cover Jewish history from the Maccabean revolt to the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. Josephus’ detailed descriptions of the Herodian dynasty, the Roman occupation, and early Christian figures corroborate New Testament events, including references to Jesus, James (Jesus’ half-brother), and John the Baptist.

Eusebius (260-340 C.E.): An ecclesiastical historian and bishop of Caesarea (c. 260-340 C.E.), Eusebius wrote “Ecclesiastical History,” documenting the early church from Christ to Constantine. His work connects biblical accounts with historical developments in early Christianity.

Corroborating the Bible

Classical historians not only provide a broader understanding of ancient civilizations but also often corroborate biblical accounts, enhancing the historical credibility of the Bible and enriching our knowledge of the past. For example, Josephus’ accounts align with the New Testament on figures such as Herod the Great, John the Baptist, and James, the brother of Jesus. Tacitus references the execution of Jesus under Pontius Pilate, affirming the Gospel narratives. Pliny the Younger, in his letters, mentions early Christians and their practices, providing external confirmation of the rapid spread of Christianity.

These historians also offer context and background that illuminate the cultural and political environments in which biblical events occurred. Herodotus and Xenophon provide insights into the Persian Empire, significant in the post-exilic period of Jewish history. Greek and Roman historians’ writings on Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon help fill gaps and confirm details about the ancient Near Eastern empires mentioned in the Old Testament.

Conclusion

The writings of classical historians are invaluable for understanding the historical context of the Bible. Their accounts provide external corroboration of biblical events and figures, enhancing the credibility of the biblical narrative. By studying these historians, we gain a richer, more nuanced understanding of the ancient world and the historical foundations of our faith. Highlighting the role of these ancient secular historians affirms and enriches our understanding of biblical history. Additionally, when publishing articles on biblical people, places, and events, quoting a corroborating source and linking to the source article allows readers to better understand these historical figures.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).