Introduction to the Ugarit

Ugarit: An Ancient Port City

Ugarit (/juːˈɡɑːrɪt, uː-/; Ugaritic: 𐎜𐎂𐎗𐎚, ʾUgarītu) was an ancient port city located in northern Syria, approximately 10 kilometers north of what is now Latakia. At its peak, Ugarit controlled an area about the size of the modern Latakia Governorate. The city was discovered by accident in 1928 along with the Ugaritic texts. Its ruins are commonly referred to as Ras Shamra, named after the headland where they were found.

Ugarit’s history began in the Neolithic period and it continued to be a settlement through the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. The city had strong ties with the Hittite Empire, eventually becoming a vassal state. At times, Ugarit sent tribute to Egypt and maintained trade and diplomatic connections with Cyprus, known back then as Alashiya. These interactions are documented in the archives found at the site and supported by Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery discovered there. The city-state thrived from around 1450 BC until its destruction around 1185 BC, which may have been caused by the Sea Peoples or an internal conflict. This destruction was part of the broader Bronze Age Collapse that dismantled many kingdoms of the time. Gibala (Tell Tweini), a coastal city at the southern edge of the Ugarit kingdom, was also destroyed during this period.

Ugarit: An Ancient City’s Rise and Fall

History

Based on archaeological findings, Ugarit was first occupied around the eighth millennium BC. However, most of the archaeological focus has been on the Late Bronze Age levels, leaving earlier periods less understood. Some remains from the Middle Bronze Age were discovered, including a bead inscribed with the name of the Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris I (1970–1936 BC).

Late Bronze Age

The city reached its peak between 1500 BC and 1200 BC, ruling a trade-based coastal kingdom. Ugarit traded with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean (primarily Crete), Syria, the Hittites, cities of the Levant (including Ashkelon), and much of the eastern Mediterranean. After periods of control by Egypt and briefly by Mitanni, Ugarit became a vassal of the Hittite Empire during the reign of Niqmaddu II (c. 1350–1315 BC). The population of Ugarit at this time is estimated to have been between 7,000 and 8,000 people.

The earliest evidence of Ugaritic contact with Egypt comes from a carnelian bead linked to the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC. Additionally, a stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have been found, though their arrival time in Ugarit is unclear. Amarna letters from around 1350 BC include correspondence from Ugarit’s rulers Ammittamru I and Niqmaddu II, providing further insight into the kingdom’s political landscape. Ugarit controlled an area of about 2,000 km² on average.

Destruction

From the late 13th century into the early 12th century BC, the region, including Hittite areas, the Levant, and the eastern Mediterranean, faced severe food shortages, possibly due to plant diseases. Ugarit, once a major supplier, began receiving desperate pleas for food from other realms. A letter from Egyptian pharaoh Merenptah referred to a request from Ugarit’s ruler:

“So you had written to me: ‘Could I not have demanded my needs [from] the Great King, the king of Egypt, my lord? I demand this request: [In] the land of Ugarit there is a severe hunger (bi-ru-ú dan-niš): May my lord save [the land of Ugarit], and may the king give grain (ZÍZ.AN.MEŠ) to save my life … and to save the citizens of the land of Ugarit.'”

Ammurapi, the last king of Ugarit (circa 1215 to 1180 BC), was a contemporary of the last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II. Although the exact dates of Ammurapi’s reign are unknown, his correspondence reveals the dire situation faced by Near Eastern states due to attacks. Ugarit had a large army and navy, which joined with Hittite forces to try to repel the enemy. Ammurapi’s response to an appeal for help from the king of Alashiya illustrates the crisis:

“My father, behold, the enemy’s ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka? … Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.”

Eshuwara, the senior governor of Cyprus, replied:

“As for the matter concerning those enemies: (it was) the people from your country (and) your own ships (who) did this! And (it was) the people from your country (who) committed these transgression(s) … I am writing to inform you and protect you. Be aware!”

Eventually, Ammurapi pleaded for help from the Hittite viceroy at Carchemish as the enemy advanced on Ugarit:

“To the king, my lord say, thus Ammurapi, your servant.… I wrote you twice, thrice, [new]s regarding the enemy! … May my lord know that now the enemy forces are stationed at Ra’šu, and their avant-guard forces were sent to Ugarit. Now may my lord send me forces and chariots, and may my lord save me from the forces of this enemy!”

Although troops were sent, Ugarit was ultimately sacked. A letter sent after the city’s destruction described the devastation:

“When your messenger arrived, the army was humiliated and the city was sacked. Our food in the threshing floors was burnt and the vineyards were also destroyed. Our city is sacked. May you know it! May you know it!”

Archaeologists have studied Ugarit’s ruins, comparing artifacts with those from nearby cultures to help establish dates. The destruction levels contained Late Helladic IIIB pottery but no LH IIIC pottery, indicating the destruction date is around 1190 BC. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed sometime after the death of Merneptah (1203 BC). It is generally agreed that Ugarit was destroyed by the eighth year of Ramesses III (1178 BC). Recent radiocarbon work suggests a destruction date between 1192 and 1190 BC. A tablet found at Ras Shamra indicates that Bay, an official of Queen Twosret, communicated with Ammurapi between 1194–1190 BC, setting an upper limit on Ugarit’s destruction date.

In 2021, a large number of arrowheads were recovered from the destruction level, though their typology has yet to be published.

Cuneiform Tablets

Numerous cuneiform tablets have been found at Ugarit. By the Late Bronze Age, Ugarit had developed a thriving dual-scribal system. Primarily, the West Semitic Akkadian language was used, serving as the lingua franca throughout the region for diplomacy, business, and administrative purposes. Alongside this, there was significant scribal activity in the local Northwest Semitic Ugaritic language. Some scribes were proficient in both writing systems.

Several archives were discovered, with the largest belonging to the household of Urtēnu, a merchant with trading connections as far as Emar. This area of the tell was under military control at the time, and about 100 tablets were found in the rubble from military construction. Later excavations uncovered several hundred more tablets in the actual home. One of these tablets mentions the enthronement of Kassite ruler Kadashman-Harbe II (c. 1223 BC), whose reign lasted less than a year, providing a precise chronological marker. The latest datable text from the site is from the reign of Kassite ruler Meli-Shipak II (c. 1186–1172 BC), around the time Ugarit was destroyed. An example from the archive, detailing a transaction involving one ton of copper, reads:

“Thus Kušmešuša, king of Alašiya, say to Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit, my son. All is well with me, my households, my countries, my wives, my sons, my troops, my horses and my chariots.… In exchange of the gift which you had sent me, I sent to you thirty-three (ingots of) copper; their weight is thirty talents and six-thousand and five-hundred shekels.”

Additionally, a small tablet written in Cypro-Minoan was found on the surface of the tell. Traditionally, it has been assumed that syllabic texts are in the Akkadian language and alphabetic texts are in Ugaritic. However, it has been suggested that much of the syllabic writing, especially in administrative documents, is actually in “a jargon where an Akkadian dialect is hard to detect given the great amount of Ugaritic elements it contained.”

The Royal Palace

The Royal Palace at Ugarit was constructed in several major phases between the 15th and 13th centuries BC. Before the city’s destruction in the early 12th century BC, it covered an area of 6,500 square meters with rooms arranged around courtyards. A 14th-century BC tablet from the Amarna archives (EA 89) records Rib-Hadda of Byblos comparing the palace at Tyre to the grandeur of Ugarit’s palace. The palace was well built, primarily from stone, with preserved ashlar blocks reaching heights of up to 4 meters. Wooden crossbeams were inserted into slots within the stone masonry, and the walls were covered with a thick layer of plain plaster. To the west of the palace was a 10,000 square meter Royal Zone.

Archaeological findings within the palace ruins have included a variety of artifacts such as ivory carvings, stone stelae, figurines, and numerous tablets. These tablets were discovered in archives located throughout the palace and included reports on outlying regions, judicial records—especially from the south-central archives—and examples of practice writing by young scribes. Beneath two northern rooms lay family tombs, consisting of three large chambers constructed with corbelled vaults, though they were found empty. The vanished upper floor likely housed the private quarters of the royal family, which were accessed via twelve staircases.

The Acropolis

The Acropolis, located in the northeastern section of Ugarit, housed the city’s main temples dedicated to Baal and his father, Dagan. Although the current ruins date to the Late Bronze Age, these temples may have originated in the Middle Bronze Age. Stelai found in this area depict or name these gods, confirming their identification for the respective cults. In the Temple of Baal, discoveries include the “Baal with Thunderbolt,” which shows Baal holding a club aloft, depicted in a typical Near Eastern and Egyptian artistic style, as well as a stela bearing a dedication to “Baal of Sapan.” Numerous statues, stelai—some offered by Egyptians—and sixteen stone anchors were found as votive offerings in this area.

Both temples are comprised of a pronaos (porch) and a naos (sanctuary proper), aligned from north-northeast to south-southwest. The Temple of Dagan has foundation walls that are 4-5 meters thick. The remnants of the Temple of Baal include sections of an enclosing wall, a probable courtyard altar, monumental steps leading to the elevated pronaos and naos, and another presumed altar within the naos. The temple was destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid-13th century and was not rebuilt. The Temple of Dagan was also destroyed at that time but was later rebuilt.

Another significant structure within the Acropolis was the House of the High Priest, located west of the Temple of Dagan. This large, two-story residence, which was well-constructed, contained tablets with mythological poems. Some tablets demonstrated writing exercises and included syllabic and bilingual lexicons, indicating the building’s use as a center for scribe training. Its proximity to the primary temples and the discovery of bronze tools, particularly four small adzes and a dedicated hoe, suggest that it was the residence of the city’s chief priest. Among a cache of seventy-four bronze items uncovered beneath a doorway threshold inside the house was an elegant tripod adorned with pomegranate-shaped pendants.

Ras Ibn Hani and Minet el Beida

Two nearby areas, Ras Ibn Hani and Minet el Beida, which were part of the city of Ugarit, have also been excavated. Ras Ibn Hani, located on a promontory overlooking the Mediterranean Sea about 5 kilometers south of Ugarit, was discovered during commercial construction in 1977. Salvage excavation began in 1977, followed by regular excavation conducted by a Syrian-French team led by A. Bounni and J. Lagarce. Occupation at Ras Ibn Hani began in the mid-13th century BC. After being abandoned along with Ugarit, it was re-occupied during the Hellenistic period, when a defensive fortress was constructed. Excavations have uncovered a “royal palace,” elite housing, and tombs, as well as about 169 cuneiform tablets, most of which were written in the Ugaritic language.

One of Ugarit’s two ports (the other, Ra’šu, is unlocated but suggested to be Ras Ibn Hani) was situated 1.5 kilometers west of the main city, at the natural harbor of Minet el Beida (Arabic for “White Harbor”). This 28-hectare site was excavated between 1929 and 1935 by Claude Schaeffer. Currently a military port, Minet el Beida is not available for excavation. Its name in the Late Bronze Age is believed to have been Maʾḫadu. Archaeological excavations on the southern side of the bay, now reduced in size due to alluvial fill, revealed the remnants of a settlement established in the 14th century BC, and possibly earlier, in the late 15th century. This port town, with an urban layout similar to that of Ugarit, featured irregular street formations. Houses were built around courtyards with adjacent rooms, including amenities such as wells, ovens, and sometimes subterranean tombs. Besides residential areas and shrines, there were warehouses for storing various goods intended for import or export. One warehouse was found with eighty intact shipping jars.

Artifacts found in the port indicate that the local population was predominantly native Ugaritians, but there was also a significant presence of various foreign communities, including Egyptians, Cypriots, Hittites, Hurrians, and Aegean peoples. Among the discoveries were Cypriot pottery (both imported and locally made), Mycenaean pottery, ivory cosmetic containers from Egypt, a terracotta depiction of Hathor, bronze tools and weapons, cylinder seals, stone weights, remnants of banded dye-murex shells used for making purple dye, and inscribed tablets.

The site appears to have been largely evacuated before being burned and destroyed, as evidenced by a thick ash layer and the absence of valuables in the residences or in the southern palace. Approximately 130 cuneiform tablets were found in the northern palace. After its destruction, the site was reoccupied by simple residences, described as a village by the excavators. Aegean-style pottery and loom weights were found in this Iron Age I level.

Language and Literature

Alphabet

Around 1400 BC, scribes in Ugarit developed what is known as the “Ugaritic alphabet.” This alphabet consists of 30 letters, each representing a different sound, inscribed on clay tablets. Although these letters appear cuneiform in shape, they are not related to Mesopotamian cuneiform signs. Instead, they seem to be related to the Egyptian-derived Phoenician alphabet. While the letters themselves do not resemble Phoenician letters, the standard order of the letters (seen in the Phoenician alphabet as ʔ, B, G, D, H, W, Z, Ḥ, Ṭ, Y, K, L, M, N, S, ʕ, P, Ṣ, Q, R, Š, T) shows strong similarities. This suggests that the Phoenician and Ugaritic systems were not entirely independent inventions. A Unicode block for Ugaritic has been defined.

Ugaritic Language

The Ugaritic language is attested in texts from the 14th to the 12th century BC. Classified as a Northwest Semitic language, Ugaritic is related to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician. Its grammatical features are quite similar to those of Classical Arabic and Akkadian. Ugaritic has two genders (masculine and feminine), three cases for nouns and adjectives (nominative, accusative, and genitive), three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), and verb aspects similar to other Northwest Semitic languages. The typical word order in Ugaritic is verb–subject–object (VSO) and subject-object-verb (SOV). Possessed nouns precede possessors (NG), with the first element depending on function and the second always in the genitive case. Adjectives follow nouns (NA), with both elements in the same case.

Ugaritic Literature

Ugaritic literature, found on tablets in the city’s libraries, includes a variety of texts such as mythological narratives, letters, legal documents like land transfers, international treaties, and administrative lists. The city’s literature features fragments of several poetic works, including the “Legend of Keret,” the “Legend of Danel,” and the Ba’al tales, which detail Baal-Hadad’s conflicts with Yam and Mot. These texts are significant for understanding the mythological and cultural context of Ugarit.

Ugarit—Ancient City in the Shadow of Baal

In 1928, a Syrian farmer struck a stone with his plow, uncovering a tomb filled with ancient ceramics. He had no idea of the significance of his discovery. Hearing about this chance find, a French archaeological team led by Claude Schaeffer arrived at the site the following year.

Soon after, the team unearthed an inscription that enabled them to identify the ruins they were excavating. It was Ugarit, described as “one of the most important ancient cities of the Near East.” Writer Barry Hoberman even remarked, “No archaeological discovery, not even that of the Dead Sea Scrolls, has had a more profound impact on our understanding of the Bible.”​—The Atlantic Monthly.

Where Paths Crossed

Situated on a mound known as Ras Shamra on the Mediterranean coast of what is now northern Syria, Ugarit was a flourishing cosmopolitan city in the second millennium B.C.E. Its territory spanned about 35 miles (60 km) from Mt. Casius in the north to Tell Sukas in the south and 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) from the Mediterranean in the west to the Orontes Valley in the east.

Livestock thrived in Ugarit’s temperate climate. The region produced cereals, olive oil, wine, and timber—a resource scarce in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Moreover, Ugarit’s strategic location at the junction of major trade routes made it one of the first great international ports. Merchants from the Aegean, Anatolia, Babylon, Egypt, and other parts of the Middle East converged in Ugarit to trade metals, agricultural products, and a variety of locally produced goods.

Despite its material prosperity, Ugarit was always a vassal kingdom. Initially, it was the northernmost outpost of the Egyptian Empire until it became part of the Hittite Empire in the 14th century B.C.E. Ugarit was required to pay tribute and provide troops to its overlord. When the “Sea Peoples” began to ravage Anatolia (central Turkey) and northern Syria, the Hittites requisitioned Ugarit’s troops and fleet. Consequently, Ugarit was left defenseless and was completely destroyed around 1200 B.C.E.

The “Sea Peoples” are generally identified as seafarers from Mediterranean islands and coastlands. The Philistines may have been among them.​—Amos 9:7.

Resurrecting the Past

The destruction of Ugarit left behind a massive mound almost 60 feet (20 meters) high and covering more than 60 acres (25 hectares). Only one-sixth of this area has been excavated. Among the ruins, archaeologists uncovered the remains of an immense palace complex with nearly a hundred rooms and courtyards, spanning about 100,000 square feet (10,000 square meters). The complex featured running water, bathrooms, and a sewage system. The furniture was inlaid with gold, lapis lazuli, and ivory. Intricately carved ivory panels have also been found. A walled garden and a sunken basin added to the palace’s charm.

The city and the surrounding plain were dominated by the temples of Baal and Dagan. These temple towers, possibly 60 feet (20 meters) tall, had a small vestibule leading to an inner room that housed an image of the god. A staircase led up to a terrace where the king officiated various ceremonies. At night or during storms, beacons may have been lit on the temple summits to guide ships safely into the harbor. Sailors who attributed their safe return to the storm god Baal-Hadad likely made the votive offerings of 17 stone anchors found in his sanctuary.

While opinions vary, some identify the temple of Dagan as the temple of El. Roland de Vaux, a French scholar and professor at the Jerusalem School of Biblical Studies, suggested that Dagan—the Dagon of Judges 16:23 and 1 Samuel 5:1-5—is the proper name of El. The Encyclopedia of Religion comments that possibly “Dagan was in some sense identified with or assimilated to [El].” In the Ras Shamra texts, Baal is called the son of Dagan (more below), but the meaning of “son” here is uncertain.

Treasure Trove of Inscriptions

Thousands of clay tablets were discovered throughout the ruins of Ugarit. Economic, legal, diplomatic, and administrative texts have been found in eight languages, written in five scripts. Schaeffer’s team found inscriptions in a previously unknown language—named Ugaritic—using 30 cuneiform signs, which made up one of the oldest alphabets ever discovered.

In addition to covering mundane matters, Ugaritic documents contain literary texts that offer new insights into the religious concepts and practices of the time. The religion of Ugarit appears to have been very similar to that practiced by the neighboring Canaanites. According to Roland de Vaux, these texts “are a fairly accurate reflection of civilization in the land of Canaan just prior to the Israelite conquest.”

Religion in the City of Baal

More than 200 gods and goddesses are mentioned in the Ras Shamra texts. The supreme deity was El, called the father of the gods and of man. The storm god Baal-Hadad was described as “the rider of the clouds” and “the lord of the earth.” El is depicted as a wise, white-bearded old man, distant from humanity. In contrast, Baal is portrayed as a strong and ambitious deity who seeks to rule over both gods and humans.

The discovered texts were probably recited during religious festivals, such as the new year or the harvest. However, their exact interpretation remains obscure. In one poem about a dispute over rulership, Baal defeats El’s favorite son, the sea-god Yamm. This victory might have given Ugarit’s sailors confidence that Baal would protect them at sea. In a duel with Mot, Baal is overcome and descends to the underworld. A drought follows, and human activities cease. Baal’s wife and sister Anat—goddess of love and war—kills Mot and restores Baal to life. Baal then massacres the sons of El’s wife, Athirat (Asherah), and regains the throne. However, Mot returns seven years later.

Some interpret this poem as a symbol of the annual cycle of the seasons, where life-giving rains are overcome by the torrid heat of summer and return in the autumn. Others think that the seven-year cycle relates to fears of famine and drought. In either case, Baal’s preeminence was considered essential for the success of human endeavors. Scholar Peter Craigie notes: “The goal of Baal’s religion was to secure his supremacy; only while he remained supreme, so his worshipers believed, would the crops and cattle so essential to human survival continue.”

A Rampart Against Paganism

The texts unearthed from Ugarit reveal the depravity of its religion. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary comments: “The texts show the degrading results of the worship of these deities; with their emphasis on war, sacred prostitution, sensuous love and the consequent social degradation.” Roland de Vaux observes: “On reading these poems, one understands the repulsion that true believers in Yahwism and the great prophets felt for this worship.” The Law that God gave the ancient nation of Israel was a barrier against such false religion.

Divination, astrology, and magic were widely practiced in Ugarit. Signs and omens were sought not only in the heavenly bodies but also in deformed fetuses and the viscera of slaughtered animals. Historian Jacqueline Gachet comments, “It was believed that the god to whom a ritually sacrificed animal was offered identified with it and that the god’s spirit fused with the animal’s spirit. As a result, by reading the signs visible on these organs, it was possible to have clear access to the spirit of divinities who were able to give either a positive or a negative answer to a question on future events or on the course of action to take in a specific situation.” (Le pays d’Ougarit autour de 1200 av. J.C.) In contrast, the Israelites were to shun such practices.​—Deuteronomy 18:9-14.

The Mosaic Law clearly forbade bestiality. (Leviticus 18:23) How was this practice viewed in Ugarit? In the discovered texts, Baal copulates with a heifer. Archaeologist Cyrus Gordon commented, “If it be argued that Baal assumes the shape of a bull for the act, the same cannot be said for his priests who re-enacted his mythological career.”

The Israelites were commanded: “You must not make cuts in your flesh for a deceased soul.” (Leviticus 19:28) Reacting to Baal’s death, however, El “cut his skin with a knife, he made incisions with a razor; he cut his cheeks and chin.” Ritual laceration was apparently a custom among Baal worshipers.​—1 Kings 18:28.

One Ugaritic poem seems to indicate that cooking a kid in milk was part of a fertility rite common in Canaanite religion. In the Mosaic Law, however, the Israelites were ordered: “You shall not boil a young goat in its mother’s milk.”​—Exodus 23:19.

Comparisons With Bible Texts

Ugaritic texts were initially translated with the help of Biblical Hebrew. Peter Craigie notes: “There are many words employed in the Hebrew text whose meanings are unclear and, sometimes, unknown; translators prior to the 20th century surmised, by various means, their possible meaning. But when the same words occur in the Ugaritic text, progress is possible.”

For example, a Hebrew word used in Isaiah 3:18 is generally translated as “headbands.” A similar Ugaritic root designates both the sun and the sun-goddess. Thus, the women of Jerusalem mentioned in Isaiah’s prophecy may have been adorned with little sun pendants as well as “moon-shaped ornaments” in honor of Canaanite gods.

In Proverbs 26:23 of the Masoretic text, “burning lips and a wicked heart” are compared to an earthen vessel covered with “silver dross.” A Ugaritic root allows for the comparison to be rendered “like glaze upon a potsherd.” The Updated American Standard Version (UASV) renders this proverb: “Like silver dross covering an earthen vessel are fervent lips with an evil heart.”

Biblical Substratum?

Examining the Ras Shamra texts has led some scholars to claim that certain Bible passages are adaptations of Ugaritic poetic literature. André Caquot, a member of the French Institute, mentions “the Canaanite cultural substratum at the heart of Israelite religion.”

Regarding Psalm 29, Mitchell Dahood of the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome comments, “This psalm is a Yahwistic adaptation of an older Canaanite hymn to the storm-god Baal . . . Virtually every word in the psalm can now be duplicated in older Canaanite texts.” Is such a conclusion justified? No indeed!

More moderate scholars recognize that similarities have been exaggerated. Others have criticized what they call pan-Ugaritism. Theologian Garry Brantley states, “No single Ugaritic text parallels Psalm 29 in full. To suggest that Psalm 29 (or any other biblical text) is an adaptation of a pagan myth has no evidential basis.”

Is the fact that similarities exist in figures of speech, poetic parallels, and stylistic features proof of adaptation? On the contrary, such parallels are to be expected. The Encyclopedia of Religion notes, “The reason for this similarity of form and content is cultural: notwithstanding the significant geographical and temporal differences between Ugarit and Israel, they were part of a larger cultural entity that shared a common poetic and religious vocabulary.” Garry Brantley therefore concludes, “It is improper exegesis to force pagan beliefs into the biblical text simply because of linguistic similarities.”

Finally, it should be noted that if any parallels do exist between the Ras Shamra texts and the Bible, they are purely literary, not spiritual. Archaeologist Cyrus Gordon remarks, “The ethical and moral heights reached in the Bible are [not] to be found in Ugarit.” Indeed, the differences far outweigh any similarities.

Ugaritic studies are likely to continue helping Bible students understand the cultural, historical, and religious environment of Bible writers and of the Hebrew nation in general. Further examination of the Ras Shamra texts may also shed new light on understanding ancient Hebrew. Above all, however, the archaeological finds at Ugarit highlight the contrast between the degrading devotion to Baal and the pure worship of Jehovah.

Dagon

Dagon was a god worshipped by the Philistines. The existence of cities named “Beth-dagon” in the territories of Judah and Asher suggests that the worship of Dagon was well established in Canaan at the time of Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land (Joshua 15:41; 19:27). It is believed that the Philistines adopted Dagon worship from the Canaanites.

There is no agreement on the origin of the name Dagon. Some scholars associate it with the Hebrew word dagh (fish), while others link it with the Hebrew word da·ghanʹ (grain). In 1 Samuel 5:4, it is stated concerning the fallen Dagon, “Only the trunk of Dagom [literally, ‘Only Dagon’] was left to him” (UASV), with his head and the palms of his hands having been cut off. The Hebrew word meaning “Dagon” in this text has been translated in various ways: “body” (NIV, TEV), “Dagon’s body” (NE), “Dagon himself” (Ro), and “fishy part” (Yg).

Dagon appears in several Biblical narratives. Samson caused the collapse of a house in Gaza used for Dagon worship by bracing himself against the two middle supporting pillars, killing the Philistines who had gathered there (Judges 16:21-30). In Ashdod, the Philistines placed the sacred Ark of Jehovah in the house of Dagon as a war trophy. Twice, the image of Dagon fell on its face before the Ark, and the second time, the idol was broken. To avoid defiling the place where the pieces of their god had lain, the priests and others entering the temple of Dagon in Ashdod avoided stepping on the threshold (1 Samuel 5:2-5).

The Philistines experienced the painful effects of piles and the destruction of their land by jerboas, recognizing that the hand of the God of Israel was against them and their god Dagon (1 Samuel 5:6, 7; 6:5). When King Saul was found among the slain at Gilboa, the Philistines cut off his head. After informing the houses of their idols and their people, they fastened Saul’s skull to the house of Dagon (1 Samuel 31:8-10; 1 Chronicles 10:8-10). It is possible that the Philistines carried idols of Dagon into battle (2 Samuel 5:21).

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