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Uncover the legacy of Akkad, an ancient city central to Mesopotamian history and biblical accounts, from its founding by Nimrod to its influence on the Babylonian empire. Discover archaeological efforts to pinpoint its location and understand its significance in the ancient world.

Introduction to Akkad (Accad)

Akkad, also known as Accad, Akkade, or Agade, was one of the four cities founded by Nimrod, marking the beginning of his kingdom as mentioned in Genesis 10:10. The city, identified with ancient Agade, has an uncertain location. Akkad not only refers to this city but also to the entire northern region of what later became known as Babylonia, while the southern part was known as Sumer.

Genesis 10:8–12 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)
8 Cush fathered Nimrod; he was the first on earth to be a mighty man. 9 He was a mighty hunter before Jehovah. Therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before Jehovah.”[1] 10 The beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. 11 From that land he went forth into Assyria, and built Nineveh and Rehoboth-Ir and Calah, 12 and Resen between Nineveh and Calah; that is the great city.

[1] That is, He was a mighty hunter in opposition to Jehovah. Lit in front of or before, but in the sense of defiance of and opposition to, as in the case of the same expression in Num. 16:2; Josh. 7:12–13; 1 Ch 14:8; 2 Ch 14:10; Job 23:4. Some Bible scholars attach a favorable sense to the Hebrew preposition meaning in front of or before, the Jewish Targums, the writings of the historian Josephus, and also the context of Genesis chapter 10 suggest that Nimrod was a mighty hunter in opposition to Jehovah.

Historical Significance and Language

Akkad gained prominence under Sargon I (different from the Sargon mentioned in Isaiah 20:1), becoming the principal city of the region. It served as the first capital for the kings of the Akkadian Dynasty, ruling Babylon for about 200 years. The term Akkadian today describes the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian languages. The Akkadians were known for their advancements in fine sculpture and intricate seal cutting.

Excavated at Babylon in 1879, the Cylinder was inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform on the orders of the Persian king Cyrus the Great after he captured Babylon in 539 B.C. It marks the establishment of Persian rule and records how Cyrus restored shrines and allowed deported peoples to return home.

Babylonian Era and the Cyrus Cylinder

Babylonia, emerging from the union of Akkad and Sumer, continued to use the title “king of Akkad” until Babylon’s fall in 539 B.C.E. The Cyrus Cylinder records Babylon’s conqueror assuming the title “King of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad.”

Map of the Near East showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire and the general area in which Akkad was located

Geographical Uncertainty

Akkad’s exact location remains unknown. Early researchers considered various unidentifiable mounds as potential sites. Modern focus suggests a central Iraq location, near landmarks such as Eshnunna, Sippar, Kish, the Tigris River, and the Diyala River, all within 30 kilometers of Baghdad. There are also proposals placing it as far north as the Mosul area.

Religious Aspects

The main goddess of Akkad was Ishtar-Annunitum, known as ‘Aštar-annunîtum or “Warlike Ishtar”. Another aspect, Istar-Ulmašītum, might have been Akkad’s patron goddess. The god Ilaba, Ishtar’s husband, was also revered in Akkad and later in Girsu and possibly Sippar during the Old Babylonian period.

Biblical Mention and Linguistic Considerations

Akkad is possibly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, where it appears in a list of Nimrod’s cities in Sumer (Shinar). The name’s non-Akkadian origin, suggested by early Assyriology, indicates that the site might have been occupied before Sargonic times. Proposals for the name’s origin include Sumerian, Hurrian, or Lullubian languages.

Artist’s rendition of the ancient city of Babylon

[Dates From Here Are Secular, Not Literal Bible Chronology]

Tracing the History of Akkad Through Archaeological Sources

Introduction to Akkad’s History

The history of Akkad (also spelled Accad, Akkade, or Agade) unfolds through various ancient sources, reflecting its prominence in Mesopotamian history. Akkad was one of the principal cities of the Akkadian Empire, and its influence spanned several centuries, from its pre-Akkadian rule to its role in later empires.

Early Mentions and Military Campaigns

En-šakušuana, king of Uruk around 2350 B.C.E., mentioned defeating Akkad in his royal year name. This event occurred before the rise of the Akkadian Empire, indicating Akkad’s significance even in pre-Akkadian times. Similarly, Manishtushu, the second Akkadian ruler (circa 2270–2255 B.C.E.), left inscriptions detailing his conquests and mentions of Agade.

Naram-Sin and Temple Constructions

Naram-Sin, another key Akkadian ruler, had a temple built in his honor in Agade after suppressing a rebellion. Inscriptions describe how the citizens of Agade sought divine protection and built a temple dedicated to Naram-Sin. His year names include references to constructing walls and temples in Agade.

Agade-ki (Country of Akkad), on a cylinder seal of Shar-Kali-Sharri.

Later Historical References

Texts from Mari reveal that Amorite king Shamshi-Adad (1808–1776 B.C.E.) visited Akkad during his military campaigns. The Laws of Hammurabi (circa 1750 B.C.E.) also mention Akkad, suggesting its continuous significance. An Old Babylonian text possibly from Sargon of Akkad’s time (2334–2279 B.C.E.) refers to ships docked at Agade’s quay. Additionally, slave names from Sippar around this period indicate connections to Akkad.

Kassite and Neo-Babylonian Eras

During the Kassite rule, Kurigalzu I (circa 1375 B.C.E.) reported rebuilding the Akitu house of Ishtar in Akkad. Nabonidus, a Neo-Babylonian ruler (556 – 539 B.C.E.), noted that Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon (681–669 B.C.E.) had reconstructed a temple in Agade.

Elamite and Achaemenid Periods

Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte (1184 to 1155 B.C.E.) captured Akkadian statues during his conquest of Mesopotamia, indicating the city’s enduring legacy. Cyrus the Great (circa 600–530 B.C.E.) referenced Akkad in his conquests, further testifying to its historical importance.

Deification and Ur III References

During the Ur III period, Akkad was frequently mentioned, with signs of deification in its naming (Dur(BAD₃)-DA-ga-de₃, meaning “Fortress of Agade”). This indicates the city’s revered status in Mesopotamian history.

Unraveling the Mysteries of Akkad’s Location

Historical References and Proposed Locations

The quest to pinpoint Akkad’s exact location has involved analyzing various historical sources and exploring multiple proposed sites.

Map showing locations of Sippar, Eshnunna, Kish, and Babylon – cities suggested as close to Akkad

Early Kudurru Evidence and Dur-Sharru-Kin Hypothesis

A kudurru dating to Marduk-nadin-ahhe’s reign (1095–1078 B.C.E.) suggests Akkad might have been renamed Dur-Sharru-Kin, distinct from the 8th-century B.C.E. Neo-Assyrian city. This location, proposed to be near “the river Nish-Gatti in the district of Milikku,” could align with Dur-Rimush, about nine kilometers north of the Neo-Assyrian Dur-Sharukin (Tell el-Mjelaat).

Geographical Suggestions and Excavations

The Little Zab river area and Ishan Mizyad (Tell Mizyad) near Babylon are also considered possible locations. Excavations at Ishan Mizyad revealed remains dating back to the Akkadian period. This site, linked to a canal from Kish, has revealed about 200 Old Akkadian administrative texts.

Kassite and Old Babylonian Period Records

Kassite land grants and Old Babylonian period documents further complicate the search. A grant to Marduk-apla-iddina I by Meli-Shipak II (1186–1172 B.C.E.) mentions Agade near the Nar Sarri (Canal of the King). Old Babylonian itineraries place Akkad between Sippar and Khafajah, suggesting a location near the Tigris and Diyala River crossing.

Eshnunna’s Influence and Zimri-Lim’s Reign

Records imply Akkad’s proximity to Eshnunna, especially during Rīm-Anum of Uruk’s time (18th century B.C.E.), when Akkad was possibly under Eshnunna’s control. A text from Zimri-Lim’s reign (circa 1775–1761 B.C.E.) also hints at a location near Eshnunna.

Further Archaeological Proposals

Tell Muhammad, near Baghdad, and El Sanam near Qādisiyyah have been proposed as Akkad’s location. While Tell Muhammad lacks Akkadian Empire period remains, El Sanam’s suggestion is based on a fragment of an Akkadian statue found there, thought to depict Rimush.

Conclusion

Akkad stands as a significant historical and archaeological site, offering insights into ancient Mesopotamian civilization, from its early beginnings to its integration into the Babylonian empire. Its rich cultural and linguistic heritage continues to fascinate researchers and historians. Akkad’s history, as pieced together from various ancient texts and inscriptions, reveals its role as a significant Mesopotamian city, from its early days to its influence on subsequent empires. Determining Akkad’s location remains a complex puzzle, with various historical and archaeological clues pointing to different sites in Iraq. Each proposed location contributes to our understanding of this ancient city’s geographical context and its role in Mesopotamian history.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).