The Isaiah Scroll, designated 1QIsa^a and also known as the Great Isaiah Scroll, is one of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls[1] that were first discovered by Bedouin[2] shepherds in 1946 from Qumran[3] Cave 1.[4] The scroll is written in Hebrew and contains the entire Book of Isaiah from beginning to end, apart from a few small damaged portions.[5] It is the oldest complete copy of the Book of Isaiah, being approximately 1000 years older than the oldest Hebrew manuscripts known before the scrolls’ discovery.[6] 1QIsa^a is also notable in being the only scroll from the Qumran Caves to be preserved almost in its entirety.[7]

The scroll is written on 17 sheets of parchment.[8] It is particularly large, being about 734 cm (24 feet) long, and ranges from 25.3 to 27 cm high (10 to 10.6 inches) with 54 columns of text.[9]

History to Discovery

The exact authors of 1QIsa^a are unknown, as is the exact date of writing. Pieces of the scroll have been dated using both radiocarbon dating[10] and palaeographic[11]/scribal dating. These methods resulted in calibrated date ranges between 356 and 103 BCE and 150–100 BCE, respectively.[12] This seemingly fits with the theory that the scroll(s) was a product of the Essenes,[13] a Jewish sect, first mentioned by Pliny the Elder[14] in his Natural History[15] and later by Josephus[16] and Philo Judaeus.[17] Further supporting this theory are the number of Essene sectarian texts found in the surrounding Qumran Caves and the lining up of recorded beliefs to artifacts or structures at the Qumran site (like communal meals and the obsession with ritual purity lining up with rooms with hundreds of plates and many ritual baths found at the site).[18] This theory is the most accepted in scholarly discourse. Further evidence that 1QIsa^a was used by the sectarian community at Qumran is that scholars Abegg, Flint, and Ulrich argue that the same scribe who copied the sectarian scroll Rule of the Community[19] (1QS) also made a correction to 1QIsa^a.[20] The reason for the placement of 1QIsa^a in Qumran Cave 1 is still unknown, though it has been speculated that it was placed, along with the other scrolls, by Jews (Essene or not) fleeing the Roman forces during the First Jewish–Roman War[21] (c. 66–73 CE).[22]

The scroll was discovered in Qumran Cave 1, by a group of three Ta’amireh shepherds, near the Ein Feshkha[23] spring off the northwest shore of the Dead Sea between late 1946 and early 1947; initially discovered when one of the shepherds heard the sound of shattering pottery after throwing a rock while searching for a lost member of his flock.[24] Once the shepherds agreed to return in a few days, the youngest one, Muhammed edh-Dhib returned alone before them, finding a cave filled with broken and whole jars and fragments of scrolls.[25] Of the intact jars, edh-Dhib found all but two empty; one was filled with reddish earth, and the other with a leather scroll and two oblong items covered in a black wax or pitch, (later found to be the Great Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary[26] (1QpHab), and the Community Rule (1QS) respectively).[27] Edh-Dhib returned with the three scrolls to the displeasure of the other shepherds for his solo journey, and the scrolls were transferred to a Ta’amireh site southeast of Bethlehem where they were kept in a bag suspended on a tent pole for several weeks. During this time, the front cover of 1QIsa^a broke off.[28] The three scrolls were brought to an antique dealer in Bethlehem for appraisal.[29]

Publication of the Isaiah Scroll

The scroll first came into the possession of Khalil Iskander Shahin, better known as Kando, an antique dealer who was a member of the Syrian Church.[30] Kando was unable to make anything of the writing on the scroll, and sold it to Anastasius Yeshue Samuel[31] (better known as Mar Samuel), the Syrian Archbishop of the Syrian Orthodox Church in East Jerusalem who was anxious to have it authenticated.[32] The Archbishop consulted many scholars in Jerusalem to determine the nature and significance of the documents, and in July 1947, he finally consulted the École Biblique[33] and came in contact with the visiting Dutch scholar Professor J. van der Ploeg of Nijmegen University. Van der Ploeg identified one of the manuscripts at the monastery as a copy of the Book of Isaiah in Hebrew but was met with skepticism, as a fellow scholar at the École Biblique believed that the scrolls must be fakes due to their antiquity.[34]

In January 1948, Professor Eleazar Sukenik[35] of the Chair of Palestinian Archaeology at the Hebrew University[36] arranged to meet with a member of the Syrian community in the Y.M.C. A building of Jerusalem to see the scrolls and borrow them for a few days, after hearing of their existence at the monastery.[37] Upon realizing their authenticity, Sukenik copied several chapters of the Book of Isaiah from the manuscript and distributed copies to the Constituent Assembly of the State of Israel.[38]

On February 18, 1948, Father Butrus Sowmy of St. Mark’s Monastery[39] called the American Schools of Oriental Research[40] (ASOR) to contact William Brownlee,[41] a Fellow at the ASOR, about publishing the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule. Brownlee was away from the school temporarily, so Sowmy was put in contact with Dr. John Trever, photographer and temporary director of the school.[42] Trever photographed the scrolls and sent the photographs to palaeographer and dean of American archaeologists, Professor William Albright[43] of Johns Hopkins University, who dated the manuscript of Isaiah at around 100 BCE.[44]

Early in 1949, Mar Samuel,[45] Syrian Archbishop–Metropolitan of Jerusalem, brought the scroll to the United States, hoping to sell it and the three others he had in his possession.[46] Samuel permitted ASOR to publish them within a limit of three years, and so Dr. Millar Burrows,[47] director of ASOR, along with Dr. John Trever[48] and Dr. William Brownlee prepared the scrolls for publication. The scrolls initially purchased by Samuel were published by the American Schools of Oriental Research in 1950 and included 1QIsa^a, 1QpHab, and 1QS.[49] The scrolls were advertised for sale in the Wall Street Journal in June 1954 under the “miscellaneous” columns, but were eventually bought by Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin[50] for $250,000 in 1954 and brought back to Israel, although the purchase was not announced until February 1955.[51] Along with over 200 fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the scroll is now housed in Jerusalem at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum. Recently, the Israel Museum, in a partnership with Google, created the Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Project, and has digitized 1QIsa^a, the Great Isaiah Scroll, providing a high-quality image of the entire scroll. The digitized scroll provides an English translation alongside the original text[52] and can be viewed here.

Scribal Profile and Textual Variants

The text of the Great Isaiah Scroll is generally consistent with the Masoretic Text[53] (MT) version and preserves all sixty-six chapters of the Hebrew version in the same sequence.[54] There are small areas of damage where the leather has cracked off, and a few words are missing. The text displays a scribal hand typical of the period of 125–100 BCE. The scroll also displays a tendency toward longer spellings of words which is consistent with this period. There is evidence of corrections and insertions by later scribes between the date of original writing and 68 CE.[55] A unique feature of the scroll is that it is divided into two halves, each with 27 columns and 33 chapters, unlike later versions, suggesting that this may be the earliest dividing point for the book of Isaiah.[56] There is some debate among scholars over whether the entire original scroll was copied by a single scribe, or by two scribes mirroring each other’s writing styles. A 2021 analysis by researchers at the University of Groningen[57] applied artificial intelligence and pattern recognition tools to determine that it was highly likely that two scribes copied the scroll, each contributing one of the two halves.[58]

The scroll contains scribal errors, corrections, and more than 2600 textual variants when compared with the Masoretic codex.[59] This level of variation in 1QIsa^a is much greater than other Isaiah scrolls found at Qumran, with most, such as 1QIsab, being closer to the Masoretic Text.[60] Some variants are significant and include differences in one or more verses or in several words. Most variants are more minor and include differences in a single word, alternative spellings, plural versus single usage, and changes in the order of words.[61]

Some of the major variants are notable as they show the development of the book of Isaiah over time or represent scribal errors unique to 1QIsa^a. Abegg, Flint and Ulrich argue that the absence of the second half of verse 9 and all of verse 10 in chapter 2 of 1QIsa^a indicates that these are slightly later additions. These verses are found in other Qumran Isaiah scrolls, the Masoretic Text, and the Septuagint. In chapter 40, a shorter version of verse 7 is found, matching the Septuagint. In the same verse, there is also an insertion by a later scribe showing a longer version that is consistent with the Masoretic Text.[62] There are also several examples of likely scribal errors in the scroll, such as Isaiah 16:8–9. Most of 16:8 is missing, and the first part of verse 9 is missing when compared to the Masoretic Text and Septuagint, suggesting that the scribe’s eye may have skipped over part of the text. Abegg, Flint, and Ulrich note that there are a number of errors of this nature that may represent a degree of carelessness on the part of the scribe.[63]

In some cases, the variants from 1QIsa^a have been incorporated into modern bible translations. An example is Isaiah 53:11 [See verse below], where 1QIsa^a and Septuagint[64] versions match and clarify the meaning, while the Masoretic Text is somewhat obscure. Dr. Peter Flint notes that better readings from the Qumran scrolls such as Isaiah 53:11, have been adopted by the New International Version translation and Revised Standard Version translation.[65]

Isaiah 53:11 Updated American Standard Version (UASV)
¹¹ Out of the trouble of his soul he shall see[66] and be satisfied;
by means of his knowledge the righteous one, my servant,
    will bring a righteous standing to many people,
    and he shall bear their errors.

²⁶⁹ MT VG “he shall see” LXX “[he will] show him light” DSS includes “light” after “see.”

IN SUMMARY AND REVIEW

Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, by Emanuel Tov, states: “With the aid of the carbon 14 test, 1QIsaa [the Dead Sea Isaiah Scroll] is now dated between 202 and 107 BCE (paleographical date: 125-100 BCE) . . . The mentioned paleographical method, which has been improved in recent years, and which allows for absolute dating on the basis of a comparison of the shape and stance of the letters with external sources such as dated coins and inscriptions, has established itself as a relatively reliable method.” – Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, by Emanuel Tov, 1992, p. 106.

The Isaiah Scroll, designated 1QIsa^a and also known as the Great Isaiah Scroll, is one of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls that were first discovered by Bedouin shepherds in 1946 from Qumran Cave 1. The scroll is written in Hebrew and contains the entire Book of Isaiah from beginning to end, apart from a few small damaged portions. It is the oldest complete copy of the Book of Isaiah.

Professor Julio Trebolle Barrera, a member of the international team of editors of the Dead Sea Scrolls, states: “The Isaiah Scroll [from Qumran] provides irrefutable proof that the transmission of the biblical text through a period of more than one thousand years by the hands of Jewish copyists has been extremely faithful and careful.” Comparisons between the Isaiah scroll found beside the Dead Sea in 1946 and the Masoretic text show surprisingly few differences.

EXTERNAL LINKS

• View the entire scroll.
• Comparison in two columns of the Isaiah Scroll with the Masoretic text

Attribution: This article incorporates some text from the public domain: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, and Edward D. Andrews

SCROLL THROUGH DIFFERENT CATEGORIES BELOW

BIBLE TRANSLATION AND TEXTUAL CRITICISM

BIBLICAL STUDIES / INTERPRETATION

EARLY CHRISTIANITY

CHRISTIAN APOLOGETIC EVANGELISM

TECHNOLOGY

CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

CHRISTIAN FICTION

[1] The Dead Sea Scrolls (also the Qumran Caves Scrolls) are ancient Jewish and Hebrew religious manuscripts first found in 1946/47 at the Qumran Caves in what was then Mandatory Palestine, near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating back to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE, the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered one of the most important finds in the history of archaeology, and have great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism, while at the same time casting new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism. Most of the scrolls are held by the State of Israel in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, but some of them had been taken to Jordan and are now displayed at The Jordan Museum in Amman. Ownership of the scrolls, however, is claimed by the State of Palestine. Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area.

[2] The Bedouin, Beduin or Bedu (; Arabic: بَدْو, romanized: badū, singular بَدَوِي badawī) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. However, the Arabian Peninsula is the historic and original homeland of the Bedouin Arabs.

[3] Qumran (Hebrew: קומראן; Arabic: خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel’s Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about 1.5 km (1 mi) from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya.

[4] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II: The Isaiah Scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 2. 

[5] The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: The Great Isaiah Scroll, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/isaiah

[6] The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: The Great Isaiah Scroll, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/isaiah

[7] Flint, Peter W. (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 66–67.

[8] Parchment is a writing material made from specially prepared untanned skins of animals—primarily sheep, calves, and goats. It has been used as a writing medium for over two millennia.

[9] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II : the Isaiah scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 59–65, 88.

[10] Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed in the late 1940s at the University of Chicago by Willard Libby.

[11] Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from Greek: παλαιός, palaiós, “old”, and γράφειν, gráphein, “to write”) is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents.

[12] Allaboutarchaeology.org/dead-sea-scrolls-2.htm

Jull, Timothy A. J.; Donahue, Douglas J.; Broshi, Magen; Tov, Emanuel (1995). “Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls and Linen Fragments from the Judean Desert”. Radiocarbon. 37 (1): 14. doi:10.1017/S003382220001474

[13] The Essenes (; Modern Hebrew: אִסִּיִים‎, Isiyim; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi) were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.The Jewish historian Josephus records that Essenes existed in large numbers, thousands lived throughout Roman Judaea. They were fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees, the other two major sects at the time.

[14] Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias.

[15] The Natural History (Latin: Naturalis historia) is a work by Pliny the Elder. The largest single work to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day, the Natural History compiles information gleaned from other ancient authors.

Pliny the Elder. Historia Naturalis. V, 17 or 29; in other editions V, (15).73. “Ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt usque qua nocent, gens sola et in toto orbe praeter ceteras mira, sine ulla femina, omni venere abdicata, sine pecunia, socia palmarum. in diem ex aequo convenarum turba renascitur, large frequentantibus quos vita fessos ad mores eorum fortuna fluctibus agit. ita per saeculorum milia — incredibile dictu — gens aeterna est, in qua nemo nascitur. tam fecunda illis aliorum vitae paenitentia est! infra hos Engada oppidum fuit, secundum ab Hierosolymis fertilitate palmetorumque nemoribus, nunc alterum bustum. inde Masada castellum in rupe, et ipsum haut procul Asphaltite. et hactenus Iudaea est.” cf. English Translation“

[16] The first century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (; Greek: Ἰώσηπος, Iṓsēpos; c. 37 – c. 100 C.E.

[17] [Philo. Quad Omnis Probus Liber. XII.] Philo of Alexandria (; Ancient Greek: Φίλων, romanized: Phílōn; Hebrew: יְדִידְיָה הַכֹּהֵן‎, romanized: Yedidia (Jedediah) HaCohen; c.  20 BCE – c.  50 CE), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. Philo’s deployment of allegory to harmonize Jewish scripture, mainly the Torah, with Greek philosophy was the first documented of its kind, and thereby often misunderstood.

[18] Flint, Peter W. (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 137–151.

[19] The Community Rule (Hebrew: סרך היחד, Serekh haYahad), which is designated 1QS and was previously referred to as the Manual of Discipline, is one of the first scrolls to be discovered near khirbet (ruin of) Qumran, the scrolls found in the eleven caves between 1947 and 1954 are now referred to simply as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Rule of the Community is a key sectarian document and is seen as definitive for classifying other compositions as sectarian or non-sectarian (1QpHabakkuk; 1QM; the Hodayot; and CD are other core sectarian documents).

[20] Abegg, Martin G.; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999). The Dead Sea scrolls Bible : the oldest known Bible, translated for the first time into English. Abegg, Martin G., Jr.; Flint, Peter W.; Ulrich, Eugene (1st ed.). San Francisco, California. pp. 214, 268–270.

[21] The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt (Hebrew: המרד הגדול ha-Mered Ha-Gadol), or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire, fought in Roman-controlled Judea, resulting in the destruction of Jewish towns, the displacement of its people and the appropriation of land for Roman military use, as well as the destruction of the Jewish Temple and polity. The Great Revolt began in the year 66 CE, during the twelfth year of the reign of Nero, originating in Roman and Jewish religious tensions.

[22] “Writing the Dead Sea Scrolls.” July 2010. National Geographic Channel. TV Movie, approx. 39:00–.

[23] Ein Feshkha (Arabic: عين فشخة; Hebrew: עינות צוקים, Einot Tzukim; lit. “Cliff springs”) or Ain Al-Fashka is a 2,500 ha nature reserve and archaeological site on the north-western shore of the Dead Sea, about 3 km south of Qumran in the West Bank.

[24] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II: The Isaiah Scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 2.

[25] Flint, Peter W. “The Dead Sea Scrolls”. Abingdon Press, Nashville, 2013, p. 2

[26] The Habakkuk Commentary or Pesher Habakkuk, labelled 1QpHab (Cave 1, Qumran, pesher, Habakkuk), was among the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947 and published in 1951. Due to its early discovery and rapid publication, as well as its relatively pristine preservation, 1QpHab is one of the most frequently researched and analyzed scrolls of the several hundred now known.

[27] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II: The Isaiah Scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 2.

[28] Flint, Peter W. “The Dead Sea Scrolls”. Abingdon Press, Nashville, 2013, p. 2

[29] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II : the Isaiah scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 59–65, 88.

[30] Cross, Frank Moore (1995). The Ancient Library of Qumran (3rd ed.). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 20–24.

[31] Metropolitan Mor Athanasius Yeshue Samuel (1909–1995), more often referred to as Mor Samuel, was a The First Metropolitan and Archbishop of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch in The United States of America and Canada, the Metropolitan of Jerusalem of the Syriac Orthodox Church as well as a central figure in the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls. In 1947, while Metropolitan of Jerusalem of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, Mor Samuel received news that some ancient texts had been discovered.

[32] Bruce, F. F. (1964). Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 13–19.

[33] École biblique et archéologique française de Jérusalem, commonly known as École Biblique, is a French academic establishment in Jerusalem specializing in archaeology and Biblical exegesis.

[34] Bruce, F. F. (1964). Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 13–19.

[35] Eleazar Lipa Sukenik (12 August 1889, in Białystok – 28 February 1953, in Jerusalem) was an Israeli archaeologist and professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is best known for helping establish the Department of Archaeology at the Hebrew University and being one of the first academics to recognise the age and importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

[36] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; Hebrew: הַאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הַעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Established in July 1918 and officially opened in April 1925, it is the second-oldest Israeli university, having been founded 30 years before the formal establishment of the State of Israel.

[37] Bruce, F. F. (1964). Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 13–19.

[38] Bruce, F. F. (1964). Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 13–19.

[39] Syriac Orthodox Monastery of Saint Mark is a Syriac Orthodox monastery and church in The Old City Of Jerusalem. According to a 6th-century inscription that was found at the Monastery of St Mark’s in Jerusalem during a restoration in 1940, the church is built on the ancient site of the house of Mary, mother of St.

[40] The American Society of Overseas Research (ASOR), founded in 1900 as the American School of Oriental Study and Research in Palestine, is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization based in Alexandria, Virginia which supports the research and teaching of the history and cultures of the Near East and Middle Eastern countries. ASOR supports scholarship, research, exploration, and archeological fieldwork and offers avenues of disseminating this research through their publications.

[41] William Craig Brownlee (1784 – February 10, 1860) was an American clergyman, professor of languages and author. He was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland and was the fourth son of the Laird of Torfoot.

[42] LaSor, William Sanford (1956). Amazing Dead Sea Scrolls. Chicago: Moody Press. pp. 13–19.

[43] William Foxwell Albright (May 24, 1891– September 19, 1971) was an American archaeologist, biblical scholar, philologist, and expert on ceramics.

[44] LaSor, William Sanford (1956). Amazing Dead Sea Scrolls. Chicago: Moody Press. pp. 13–19.

[45] Metropolitan Mor Athanasius Yeshue Samuel (1909–1995), more often referred to as Mor Samuel, was a The First Metropolitan and Archbishop of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch in The United States of America and Canada, the Metropolitan of Jerusalem of the Syriac Orthodox Church as well as a central figure in the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls. In 1947, while Metropolitan of Jerusalem of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, Mor Samuel received news that some ancient texts had been discovered.

[46] Bruce, F. F. (1964). Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 13–19.

[47] Millar Burrows (Wyoming, Ohio, October 26, 1889 – April 29, 1980) was an American biblical scholar, a leading authority on the Dead Sea scrolls and professor emeritus at Yale Divinity School. Burrows was director of American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem (now the William F. Albright School of Archaeological Research), and later president of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

[48] John C. Trever (November 26, 1916 – April 29, 2006) was a Biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was involved in the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

[49] LaSor, William Sanford (1956). Amazing Dead Sea Scrolls. Chicago: Moody Press. pp. 13–19.

[50] Yigael Yadin (Hebrew: יִגָּאֵל יָדִין IPA: [jigaˈel jaˈdin]) (20 March 1917 – 28 June 1984) was an Israeli archeologist, soldier and politician. He was the second Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces and Deputy Prime Minister from 1977 to 1981.

[51] Cross, Frank Moore (1995). The Ancient Library of Qumran (3rd ed.). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 20–24.

[52] “Digital Dead Sea Scrolls at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem – The Project”. dss.collections.imj.org.il. Retrieved 2017-11-03.

[53] The Masoretic Text (MT or 𝕸; Hebrew: נוסח המסורה, romanized: Nusakh Ham’mas’sora) is the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) in Rabbinic Judaism. The Masoretic Text defines the Jewish canon and its precise letter-text, with its vocalization and accentuation known as the mas’sora.

[54] The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: The Great Isaiah Scroll, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/isaiah

[55] Ulrich, Eugene; Flint, Peter W.; Abegg, Jr., Martin G. (2010). Qumran Cave 1: II : the Isaiah scrolls. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 59–65, 88.

[56] Flint, Peter W. (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 66–67.

[57] The University of Groningen (abbreviated as UG; Dutch: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, abbreviated as RUG) is a public research university of more than 30,000 students in the city of Groningen in the Netherlands. Founded in 1614, the university is one of the most traditional and prestigious in the Netherlands.

[58] Ouellette, Jennifer (21 April 2021). “More than one scribe wrote the text of a Dead Sea Scroll, handwriting shows.” Ars Technica. 

Popović, Mladen; Dhali, Maruf A.; Schomaker, Lambert (2021). “Artificial intelligence based writer identification generates new evidence for the unknown scribes of the Dead Sea Scrolls exemplified by the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa^a)”. PLOS One. 16 (4): e0249769. arXiv:2010.14476. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1649769P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249769. PMC 8059865. PMID 33882053.

[59] The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: The Great Isaiah Scroll, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/isaiah

[60] Flint, Peter W. (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 66–67.

[61] Abegg, Martin G.; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999). The Dead Sea scrolls Bible : the oldest known Bible, translated for the first time into English. Abegg, Martin G., Jr.; Flint, Peter W.; Ulrich, Eugene (1st ed.). San Francisco, California. pp. 214, 268–270. 

[62] Flint, Peter W. (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 66–67. 

[63] Abegg, Martin G.; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999). The Dead Sea scrolls Bible : the oldest known Bible, translated for the first time into English. Abegg, Martin G., Jr.; Flint, Peter W.; Ulrich, Eugene (1st ed.). San Francisco, California. pp. 214, 268–270. 

[64] The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (US also ; from the Latin: septuaginta, lit. ’seventy’; often abbreviated 70; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond those contained in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible as canonically used in the tradition of mainstream Rabbinical Judaism.

[65] Barry, John D. “The Great Isaiah Scroll and the Original Bible: An Interview with Dr. Peter Flint.” http://www.biblearchaeology.org. Archived from the original on 2017-02-10.

[66] MT VG “he shall see” LXX “[he will] show him light” DSS includes “light” after “see.”