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The following glossary gathers key Arabic, historical, and theological terms used throughout MUHAMMAD: The Truth They Don’t Want You to Know. It is designed so a reader can keep this beside the text and quickly recall how each word is used in the book.
Entries are arranged alphabetically by the main term (usually the most common English or transliterated Arabic form). Alternative spellings are noted where helpful.
‘Abd / ‘Abdullah – Arabic for “slave” or “servant.” As a theophoric name it means “slave of Allah.” Muhammad’s father is called Abdullah (“slave of Allah”), which already assumes the pre-Islamic worship of Allah as a high god alongside other deities.
Abbasid Caliphate – The Islamic dynasty that overthrew the Umayyads in 750 C.E. and ruled from Baghdad (and later elsewhere) until 1258 C.E. The Abbasids claimed descent from Muhammad’s uncle al-‘Abbas and presented themselves as more “pious,” yet their rule was marked by slave armies, harems, court intrigue, and massive bloodshed, including the slaughter of their Umayyad rivals.
Abrogation (Arabic: Naskh) – The Islamic doctrine that later Quranic verses can cancel or override earlier ones in meaning or application. Used by Muslim jurists to explain away contradictions in the Quran, especially the shift from relatively peaceful Meccan passages to militant Medinan “sword verses.”
Abu Bakr – One of Muhammad’s earliest followers and his first political successor (caliph) after his death (632–634 C.E.). Under Abu Bakr, the early Islamic state waged the Ridda (“apostasy”) Wars to force Arab tribes back under Medina’s control and to punish those who left Islam or refused to pay taxes.
Abu Talib – Muhammad’s uncle and guardian after the death of his grandfather. A pagan leader of Quraysh who protected Muhammad for years even though he never adopted Islam. His poverty shaped Muhammad’s early economic ambitions.
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) – Christian kingdom across the Red Sea from Arabia. Some of Muhammad’s followers fled there during the Meccan period in two small migrations. Later Muslim narratives use these events to claim persecution in Mecca; historically the numbers were tiny and the “asylum” was politically convenient.
Ahl al-Kitab (“People of the Book”) – Quranic term for Jews and Christians, acknowledging that they possess earlier Scriptures. While early verses speak respectfully of them, later Medinan passages command fighting them until they submit and pay jizya, revealing the tension between outward respect and practical subjugation.
Aisha – Daughter of Abu Bakr and one of Muhammad’s wives. According to the most authoritative Islamic sources, she was betrothed to Muhammad at around six and the marriage was consummated when she was about nine and he in his fifties. Later traditions present her as a major transmitter of hadith and a political actor, including her leadership role in the Battle of the Camel.
Al-Qaeda – Modern Sunni jihadist network founded by Osama bin Laden and others. Responsible for the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States and many other acts of terror. Ideologically grounded in a literalist reading of the Quran and hadith combined with modern radical Islamist writings.
Ansar (“Helpers”) – The Medinan converts who supported Muhammad after the Hijra, in contrast to the Meccan emigrants (Muhajirun). Their city became his power base for raids, battles, and state-building.
Apostasy (Arabic: Ridda) – Leaving Islam or rebelling against the authority of the Islamic state. Classical Islamic law prescribes death for adult male apostates and severe penalties for female apostates. The early Ridda Wars under Abu Bakr punished tribes that tried to leave Islam or stop paying tribute after Muhammad’s death.
Atonement – In biblical theology, the work accomplished by Jesus Christ through His sacrificial death on the cross, satisfying Jehovah’s justice and making forgiveness possible for all who exercise faith. The Quran denies this central truth, presenting Jesus as a prophet who did not die for sins, which is one of the sharpest contrasts between Islam and Christianity.
Ayah (pl. Ayat) – Literally “sign” or “verse.” Refers to individual verses of the Quran, considered by Muslims to be individual signs from Allah.
Badr – Oasis northwest of Medina and site of the first major battle between Muhammad’s forces and the Meccans (624 C.E.). Muhammad’s smaller force ambushed a Meccan caravan and then fought the Meccan relief army. The victory, presented as aided by angels, became foundational for Islamic concepts of jihad and divine approval of warfare.
Banu – Arabic for “sons of,” used as a prefix for tribal or clan names (e.g., Banu Qurayza, Banu Nadir). Indicates descent from a common male ancestor and defines alliances and rivalries in Arabian tribal society.
Banu Nadir – Jewish tribe living near Medina. Initially included in Muhammad’s “Constitution of Medina” as allies, then later besieged, stripped of property, and expelled, with their lands and fortresses seized by Muhammad and his followers.
Banu Qaynuqa – Another Jewish tribe near Medina. After a fabricated incident concerning a Muslim woman and a Jewish goldsmith, Muhammad besieged them, compelled surrender, and expelled them, seizing their goods and properties.
Banu Qurayza – Jewish tribe in Medina whose men (around 600–900 according to Islamic sources) were executed after the Battle of the Trench (627 C.E.), while their women and children were enslaved. A central example in this book of Muhammad’s willingness to authorize mass killing of prisoners.
Barbary Corsairs – North African Muslim pirates active especially from the 1500s to the 1800s. Operating from ports like Algiers and Tripoli, they raided European shipping and coastal towns, enslaving an estimated 1–1.5 million Europeans.
Battle of the Camel – Civil war battle (656 C.E.) between forces loyal to Caliph Ali and a coalition including Aisha, Talha, and Zubair. Named after the camel Aisha rode. Highlights early violent power struggles within Islam.
Byzantine Empire – Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople. A major Christian power bordering the early Islamic state, often at war with various caliphates.
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Caliph (Arabic: Khalifa) – Literally “successor” or “deputy.” Title used for leaders of the Muslim community after Muhammad’s death, combining political and religious authority. The succession of caliphs (Rightly Guided, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ottoman, etc.) forms much of Islamic political history.
Caliphate (Arabic: Khilafah) – The political entity led by a caliph. In classical Islamic thought, the ideal unified state governing the whole ummah by Sharia. Modern jihadist groups like ISIS claim to restore a caliphate.
Covenant – In the Bible, a solemn binding arrangement initiated by Jehovah with individuals or groups (e.g., Abrahamic covenant, Mosaic covenant, new covenant in Christ). Islam imitates covenant language but lacks the biblical structure of promises grounded in atonement through Christ.
Crucifixion – Roman method of execution by nailing or binding a victim to a stake or cross. Central in Christianity as the historical death of Jesus Christ for sins. The Quran denies that Jesus was crucified, claiming someone else was made to resemble Him or that the event was an illusion, a direct contradiction of biblical revelation and historical evidence.
Dawah – Islamic missionary activity or “invitation” to Islam. Historically could be peaceful preaching or a prelude to jihad, with offers that non-Muslims accept Islam, submit and pay jizya, or face war.
Dhimmi – Non-Muslim subject (especially Jew or Christian) under Islamic rule who is allowed to live and practice his religion in a limited way in exchange for paying jizya and accepting a status of legal and social inferiority.
Dhimmitude – Modern term describing the condition and mindset of dhimmis living under Islamic dominance, including internalized second-class status and various civic disabilities.
Devshirme – Ottoman practice of seizing Christian boys from conquered territories, converting them to Islam, and training them as Janissary soldiers or administrators. A form of state-run child abduction and forced Islamization.
Dua – Personal supplication or prayer in Islam, distinct from the formal ritual prayer (salat).
Emir / Amir – Arabic for “commander” or “prince.” Used for political and military leaders at various levels in the Islamic world.
Esqātology (Islamic) – Islamic teachings about the end times: appearance of the Mahdi, return of ‘Isa (Jesus), battles with the Dajjal (deceiver), resurrection, judgment, paradise, and hell. Many jihadist movements use eschatological expectations to motivate violence.
Fiqh – Islamic jurisprudence; the human scholarly effort to interpret Sharia and apply it to specific cases. Schools of fiqh (Hanafi, Shafi‘i, Maliki, Hanbali, Ja‘fari) differ on many legal details.
Fitra – In Islamic theology, the supposed natural disposition with which all humans are born, inclined toward recognizing Allah’s oneness. Used to argue that Islam is the “natural religion,” though Scripture teaches that fallen humans suppress the truth in unrighteousness.
Ghazwa / Ghazu (pl. Ghazawat) – Arabic for “raid” or “military expedition.” Originally used for tribal raids in pre-Islamic Arabia; in Muhammad’s career it becomes a religiously sanctioned raid against non-Muslims, promising booty and paradise. The book uses this to highlight how raiding culture was baptized into Islamic “holy war.”
Gehenna – From a valley near Jerusalem associated with idolatry and burning refuse. In the New Testament, symbolic of final destruction for the wicked. Distinct from Sheol/Hades (gravedom). Used in this book to clarify biblical teaching on judgment in contrast to Islamic concepts of hell.
Gospel (Greek: Euangelion) – “Good news”; specifically the message that Jehovah has provided salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Recorded in the canonical Gospels and preached by the apostles. The Quran misrepresents the Gospel as a generic book given to Jesus containing only moral guidance.
Greater and Lesser Jihad – Later Islamic distinction where “greater jihad” is inner spiritual struggle and “lesser jihad” is armed struggle. The book notes that this distinction is often exaggerated in modern apologetics; the earliest sources overwhelmingly treat jihad as physical warfare in Allah’s cause.
Hadith (pl. Ahadith) – Reports about Muhammad’s sayings, actions, and approvals. Collected centuries after his death and graded for authenticity by chains of transmission (isnad). Together with the Quran, hadith form a core foundation of Islamic law and practice.
Hafiz – A Muslim who has memorized the entire Quran. Used in discussions of oral transmission and claims of preservation.
Hajj – The major pilgrimage to Mecca required at least once in a lifetime for Muslims who are able. Many pre-Islamic rituals (circling the Kaaba, running between hills, stoning pillars, kissing the Black Stone) were retained and reinterpreted under Islam.
Hanif (pl. Hunafa) – Pre-Islamic seekers who rejected idols and looked to the God of Abraham in a vague way without fully embracing Judaism or Christianity. The Quran portrays Abraham himself as a hanif. The book notes that such figures had some light but did not submit to the full written revelation of Jehovah.
Haram – “Forbidden”; in Islamic law, acts that are absolutely prohibited and bring punishment from Allah if not repented of. Also used for sacred territory (e.g., al-Haram in Mecca).
Hijab – Modesty code or practical covering for Muslim women. Qur’anic verses tied to the “necklace incident” with Aisha became the basis for expanded veiling and seclusion rules.
Hijra (Hegira) – Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E. Marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the shift from a mainly preaching phase to building a militant state. The book emphasizes that this was a calculated move to gain power, not a mere “flight.”
Hudaybiyyah (Treaty of Hudaybiyyah) – Truce agreed between Muhammad and Quraysh in 628 C.E. near Mecca. Outwardly looked unfavorable to Muslims but was used by Muhammad as a strategic pause to consolidate power, later broken when conditions favored conquest of Mecca. Classic example of Islamic taqiyya and instrumental treaty-making.
Hudud – Fixed Quranic penal punishments (such as amputation for theft, flogging for adultery or drinking, lashing for slander). Applied variably throughout Islamic history.
Hunayn – Valley where Muhammad’s forces fought the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in 630 C.E., shortly after conquering Mecca. Despite initial panic, Muslims eventually won and enslaved many women and children, used in this book to show the brutal continuity of jihad.
I’jaz al-Quran (“Inimitability of the Quran”) – Islamic doctrine that the Quran is a miracle of language and content that cannot be matched or surpassed, proving its divine origin. Appendix A analyzes this claim and compares Quranic style to pre-Islamic poetry, showing it to be a product of its time rather than supernatural.
Ibn – Arabic for “son of,” used in names (e.g., Ibn Ishaq, Ibn al-Walid). Helpful for tracing lineages and authors.
Ijma‘ – Consensus of Muslim scholars. Classical legal theory treats ijma‘ as a source of law alongside Quran and Sunnah, though what counts as consensus is often debated.
Ijtihad – Independent reasoning by qualified scholars to derive legal rulings when no clear text exists. Some modern reformists appeal to ijtihad to adjust Islamic law, while traditionalists restrict it.
Imam – In Sunni usage, a leader of prayer or, more broadly, a respected jurist. In Shia theology, a divinely appointed leader descended from Ali, possessing spiritual authority over the ummah.
Injil – Quranic term for the “Gospel” supposedly given to Jesus. Muslims often treat it as a single heavenly book now lost or corrupted. Biblical Christians affirm that the true Gospel is preserved in the canonical Gospels and apostolic writings, not in a separate vanished text.
Intercession (Shafa‘a) – In Islam, the hope that Muhammad and other approved figures will intercede for believers on the Day of Judgment. The Quran sometimes denies and sometimes affirms intercession, contributing to doctrinal confusion.
Islam – Literally “submission.” The religion founded on Muhammad’s teaching, centered on belief in Allah’s oneness, Muhammad’s prophethood, the Quran, and obedience to Sharia. Historically expressed not only as personal belief but as a socio-political system tied to a state.
ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria / al-Dawla al-Islamiyya) – Recent jihadist group that declared a caliphate in 2014. Known for extreme brutality, revival of open slave markets, and highly public atrocities. Uses classic Islamic texts and precedents in a hyper-literal way.
Isra and Miraj – Two parts of Muhammad’s alleged night journey: the Isra (night journey from Mecca to “the farthest mosque”) and the Miraj (ascent through the heavens). Central to later Islamic claims about his heavenly authority and about the five daily prayers, though historically impossible in the way later tradition describes.
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Jahiliyyah – “Age of ignorance”; Islamic term for pre-Islamic Arabia. While the Quran uses it primarily for pagan customs, some Islamists apply it to any society not ruled by Sharia, including modern secular states.
Janissaries – Elite Ottoman infantry units made up mainly of boys taken through the devshirme system, converted to Islam, and trained as slave soldiers loyal to the sultan.
Jihad – Literally “struggle” or “striving.” In the Quran and early Islamic history, overwhelmingly refers to armed struggle in Allah’s cause, including offensive warfare. Also used for internal spiritual struggle, but that meaning has far less textual weight.
Jizya – Poll tax required of non-Muslim dhimmis under Islamic rule. Payment is often accompanied by rituals of humiliation. Quran 9:29 is the key text commanding its imposition.
Jinn – Spiritual beings made of “smokeless fire” in Islamic belief. Capable of influencing humans and sometimes listening to recitation of the Quran. Pre-Islamic Arab belief in jinn heavily influenced Muhammad’s environment and his own early experiences of fear and “possession-like” episodes.
Kaaba (Ka‘ba) – Cube-shaped shrine in Mecca, housing the Black Stone. Before Islam, filled with idols of various Arab tribes. Muhammad removed the idols but retained the structure, the Black Stone, and several pagan rituals, redefining them as Islamic.
Khadija bint Khuwaylid – Wealthy Meccan widow who employed Muhammad in caravan trade and later married him. Her resources and social status gave him his first secure base of power. She was his only wife until her death, after which he began marrying multiple women.
Khalid ibn al-Walid – Early Muslim commander nicknamed “Sword of Allah.” Instrumental in Ridda Wars and early conquests of Syria and Iraq. His ruthless actions (including massacres and brutal tactics) raise serious ethical concerns even within some Islamic sources.
Khilafah – See Caliphate.
Kitab – Arabic for “book.” The Quran refers to itself and to previous Scriptures (Torah, Psalms, Gospel) as al-Kitab or “the Book.”
Kufr / Kafir – “Unbelief” and “unbeliever.” Used for those who reject Islam, including Jews and Christians who do not accept Muhammad. Often carries connotations of ingratitude and willful denial, not mere ignorance.
Mahdi – In many Islamic traditions, a future rightly-guided leader who will appear before the end times, restore justice, and lead the Muslim community, often in cooperation with the returned Jesus. Not clearly found in the Quran; developed mainly in hadith and later theology.
Mamluks – Military slaves in various Islamic states, especially Egypt. Often of Turkic or Caucasian origin, converted to Islam and trained as warriors. At times they seized political power and ruled as a distinct caste.
Manuscript – Handwritten copy of a text. Used in discussions of Quranic and biblical textual transmission. The book contrasts the controlled burning of variant Quran manuscripts under Uthman with the broad manuscript evidence for the Bible.
Martyr (Arabic: Shahid) – One who dies “in the path of Allah” in jihad; promised paradise and sensual rewards in Islamic texts. In biblical usage, a martyr is one who bears faithful witness to Christ, even unto death, with no promise of sensual compensation.
Mecca – Muhammad’s birthplace and site of the Kaaba. Initially opposed his message; later conquered by his forces. Today the holiest city in Islam.
Medina (Yathrib) – Oasis city north of Mecca where Muhammad migrated in 622 C.E. Became the first Islamic city-state and base for his raids and wars.
Miraj – See Isra and Miraj.
Mujahid (pl. Mujahidin) – A person engaged in jihad. Modern usage often refers to Islamic fighters in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other conflict zones.
Muhajirun (“Emigrants”) – The Meccan Muslims who followed Muhammad to Medina during the Hijra, leaving their city and property. Formed a privileged core in the early Islamic community.
Muslim Brotherhood – Sunni Islamist movement founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna. Seeks to Islamize society from below and above, combining social work, preaching, and political activism. Influential on many later groups, including Hamas and some strands of Al-Qaeda.
Muta (Mut‘a, “Temporary Marriage”) – Contractual union in which a man takes a woman for a set period in exchange for payment. Practiced in early Islam and still defended in some Shia circles. In practice often functions as religiously sanctioned prostitution.
Naskh – See Abrogation.
Night Journey – See Isra and Miraj.
Niqab – Face veil worn by some Muslim women, leaving only the eyes visible. Not mandated explicitly by the Quran but rooted in broader Islamic modesty traditions and jurisprudence.
Ottoman Empire – Turkish-led Islamic empire that rose in the late Middle Ages, conquered Constantinople in 1453, and lasted until the early 20th century. Practiced devshirme and sustained long campaigns against Christian Europe and Shia rivals.
People of the Book – See Ahl al-Kitab.
Qadi – Islamic judge who applies Sharia in courts, especially in personal status, criminal, and commercial cases.
Qibla – Direction of prayer. Initially toward Jerusalem, later changed to Mecca according to Islamic tradition. The change of qibla is used in Islamic sources as a test of obedience and an example of abrogation.
Quran (Koran) – Central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of Allah revealed in Arabic to Muhammad over about 23 years. Composed of 114 surahs (chapters). This book’s appendices analyze its alleged inimitability, contradictions, dependence on earlier traditions, and historical compilation.
Quraysh – Tribal confederation to which Muhammad belonged and which controlled Mecca and the Kaaba. Initially opposed him, then largely embraced Islam after the conquest of Mecca, retaining much influence in the new Islamic state.
Qutb, Sayyid – 20th-century Egyptian Islamist thinker and leading ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood. His writings, especially Milestones, inspired many modern jihadist movements by declaring much of the Muslim world in a state of jahiliyyah and legitimizing violent revolt.
Ramadan – Ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, during which Muslims fast from dawn to sunset. Instituted through Quranic verses revealed in Medina.
Ridda Wars – Wars of “apostasy” waged by Abu Bakr against tribes who left Islam or refused to pay taxes after Muhammad’s death. Consolidated the caliphate’s authority and set the pattern of punishing apostasy with violence.
Sahaba (Companions) – Those who personally met Muhammad and died as Muslims. Considered authoritative transmitters of hadith and models for Islamic behavior.
Sahih – “Sound” or “authentic.” Label for the two most respected Sunni hadith collections: Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.
Salafism – Modern movement seeking to return to the practices of the “pious predecessors” (al-salaf al-salih), especially the first three generations of Muslims. Often overlaps with Wahhabism and literalist interpretations of jihad and Sharia.
Sarfa – Islamic theory advanced by some theologians to defend Quranic inimitability: Allah did not merely reveal a uniquely excellent text but also miraculously prevented others from producing something similar. Exposed in Appendix A as a convenient escape hatch when claims of linguistic superiority are challenged.
Satanic Verses – The incident in which Muhammad allegedly recited verses acknowledging pagan goddesses as exalted intercessors, later claiming that Satan had placed those words on his tongue. He then replaced them with harsher monotheistic verses. This event, reported in early Islamic sources, reveals deep instability in his “revelation.”
Sayyid – Honorific title meaning “lord” or “master.” In some contexts indicates a claimed descent from Muhammad.
Sharia – The totality of Islamic law derived from the Quran, hadith, ijma‘, and qiyas (analogy). Governs worship, personal status, criminal justice, economics, and politics. Implemented fully, it clashes sharply with biblical principles of justice and individual liberty.
Shia (Shi‘a) – The branch of Islam that believes leadership after Muhammad rightfully belonged to Ali and his descendants. Divided into several sub-groups (Twelvers, Ismailis, etc.). Shia history is marked by martyrdom narratives such as Karbala and long-standing hostility toward certain Sunni dynasties.
Shirk – Associating partners with Allah; the gravest sin in Islam. Includes idolatry and, in Islamic eyes, Christian belief in the Trinity and the deity of Christ.
Sira – Biographical literature about Muhammad’s life, the earliest major example being the Sira of Ibn Ishaq (surviving in later redaction). Provides much of the narrative detail used in this book’s historical analysis.
Slave-Jihad System – Historical pattern in which Islamic conquests generated slaves through war, and slave soldiers (like Mamluks or Janissaries) then served and expanded the Islamic state, perpetuating cycles of violence and bondage.
Sunna / Sunnah – The example, customs, and approved practices of Muhammad, recorded in hadith and sira. Together with the Quran, Sunna defines proper Islamic behavior.
Sunni – The majority branch of Islam that recognizes the first four caliphs and emphasizes the authority of Sunna and consensus. Historically often in conflict with Shia communities.
Surah (Sura) – Chapter of the Quran. There are 114 surahs, varying widely in length and arranged roughly from longest to shortest rather than chronologically.
Sword Verses – Later Medinan Quranic verses commanding warfare against unbelievers (e.g., 9:5, 9:29). Interpreted by many classical scholars as abrogating or limiting earlier peaceful passages, forming a key textual basis for aggressive jihad.
Tabuk – Location of Muhammad’s last major expedition (630–631 C.E.) toward the Byzantine frontier. Although no large battle occurred, the campaign projected power and extracted submissions from tribes, illustrating how the threat of jihad could function without full-scale fighting.
Ta’if – City southeast of Mecca that resisted Muhammad. He led a siege using catapults and scorched earth tactics, including destruction of vineyards, before eventually subduing the area.
Tafsir – Quranic commentary explaining verses, often by weaving in hadith, sira, and earlier legal opinions. Major tafsir works (e.g., by al-Tabari, Ibn Kathir) shape how Muslims understand the text.
Taqiyya – Concealing one’s true beliefs or intentions to avoid harm or gain advantage. Most developed in Shia jurisprudence but also supported in Sunni sources in certain contexts. This book uses “Hudaybiyyah” as a key example of strategic deception in Islamic history.
Tawhid – Islamic doctrine of absolute oneness of Allah. Central to Islam’s self-understanding and the standard by which it condemns Christian Trinitarian belief as shirk.
Timur / Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) – Fourteenth-century Turkic conqueror who claimed to act in the name of Islam. Responsible for campaigns that killed millions and for constructing literal “towers of skulls.”
Torah – The Law given by Jehovah through Moses, roughly corresponding to the first five books of the Bible. The Quran claims to confirm the Torah while altering or denying many of its core narratives.
Trinity – Biblical doctrine that the one true God exists eternally as three distinct Persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—sharing the same divine nature. Frequently misrepresented in the Quran as belief in three gods or in a triad including Mary.
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Ulama – Class of Islamic scholars trained in Quran, hadith, law, and theology. Historically wielded significant social and legal influence, often legitimizing or challenging rulers.
Ummah – The worldwide community of Muslims considered as a single religious nation. Early Islamic conquests aimed to expand and unify the ummah under one caliphate.
Umayyad Caliphate – The first Islamic dynasty after the initial “Rightly Guided” caliphs, ruling from 661 to 750 C.E. Capital in Damascus. Expanded Islam into North Africa, Spain, and parts of India. Remembered negatively by many Shia because of conflicts with Ali’s supporters and events such as Karbala.
Umrah – Lesser pilgrimage to Mecca that can be performed at any time of year, distinct from the Hajj but sharing many rites.
Uthman ibn Affan – Third caliph (644–656 C.E.). Oversaw the standardization of the Quranic text and ordered the burning of variant codices, leaving one official version. His assassination contributed to the first major Muslim civil war.
Wahhabism – Strict reform movement begun in eighteenth-century Arabia by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. Emphasizes a literalist reading of Quran and hadith, harsh condemnation of practices seen as shirk, and close alliance with the House of Saud. Forms the ideological backbone of modern Saudi Arabia and influences many jihadist movements.
Wali – “Guardian” or “protector.” In marriage law, a woman’s wali is the male guardian who arranges or approves her marriage. Also used for “friend of Allah” in some mystical contexts.
Zakat – Mandatory almsgiving in Islam, usually calculated as a fixed percentage of certain types of wealth. One of the Five Pillars. Historically collected by the state and used both for charity and for funding Islamic causes.
Zamzam – Sacred well near the Kaaba, associated in Islamic tradition with Hagar and Ishmael. Provides water for millions of pilgrims each year.
Zanj – Term used for black African slaves in early Islamic sources. The Zanj slave revolt in the Abbasid era involved hundreds of thousands of slaves and led to massive bloodshed before being crushed.
Zoroastrianism – Ancient Persian religion emphasizing a cosmic struggle between good and evil. Many scholars note parallels between Zoroastrian eschatology and some Islamic depictions of judgment, suggesting cultural borrowing in late antiquity.
Zuhd – Islamic asceticism, stressing detachment from worldly pleasures. Sometimes used by early pietistic movements in contrast to the luxurious lifestyles of caliphs.
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