Scope and Method

This article presents the Hebrew alphabet as used in Biblical Hebrew, proceeding from basic description to intermediate and advanced observations. Terminology and analysis follow standard reference grammars such as Gesenius, Joüon–Muraoka, Waltke–O’Connor, and the lexica BDB and HALOT. Transliteration uses a conservative academic scheme: ʾ (aleph), ʿ (ayin), š (shin), ś (sin), ṣ, ṭ, ḥ, q, and w for ו. Scriptural examples include the Hebrew text, transliteration, a literal English rendering, and the reference.

Basic Level: The Twenty-Two Consonants

Biblical Hebrew writes words with twenty-two consonantal letters, read from right to left. Vowels were added as diacritics (niqqud) by the Masoretes in the second half of the first millennium C.E.; the consonantal text itself is older. Many letters have stable phonemic values; several reflect allophonic or historical variation.

Example (Consonantal Writing): בְּרֵאשִׁית Bĕrēʾšît — “In the beginning” (Gen 1:1). The word is written with consonants and Masoretic vowels; the underlying consonantal sequence is בראשית.

Inventory and Values (Square Script)

The following table lists each letter in its standard (non-final) form, its name, transliteration, and typical value in Tiberian tradition. Where relevant, commonly heard modern realizations are noted parenthetically.

Printed	Name	Transliteration	Typical Value
א	ʾālep̄	ʾ	Glottal stop or quiescent carrier of a vowel
בּ / ב	bêt / vēt	b / v	[b] with dagesh; [v] without
גּ / ג	gīmel	g / g	Historically [g] vs spirant [ɣ]; in most traditions both = [g]
דּ / ד	dālet	d / d	Historically [d] vs spirant [ð]; in most traditions both = [d]
ה	hē	h	[h]; quiescent word-finally; with mappiq = consonantal h
ו	wāw	w (often v in modern)	Semivowel [w] (MH: [v]); also mater for ō, ū
ז	zayin	z	[z]
ח	ḥēt	ḥ	Voiceless pharyngeal/uvular fricative [ħ ~ χ]
ט	ṭēt	ṭ	Emphatic/dental stop [tˤ ~ t̪]
י	yōd	y	Semivowel [j]; also mater for ē, ī
כּ / כ	kāf / khāf	k / kh	[k] with dagesh; [x] without; final ך
ל	lāmed	l	[l]
מ	mēm	m	[m]; final ם
נ	nūn	n	[n]; final ן
ס	sāmek	s	[s]
ע	ʿayin	ʿ	Pharyngeal approximant/fricative [ʕ ~ ʔ̞], often silent in modern
פּ / פ	pē / fē	p / f	[p] with dagesh; [f] without; final ף
צ	ṣādē	ṣ	Emphatic affricate [sˤ ~ ts]; final ץ
ק	qōf	q	Uvular stop [q], often [k] in modern
ר	rēš	r	Trill or flap [r, ɾ] (modern often [ʁ])
שׂ / שׁ	śîn / šîn	ś / š	[s] vs [ʃ]; distinguished by dot left/right
תּ / ת	tāw	t / t	[t] with dagesh; without often [t] (older [θ])

Example (Alphabet Within Words): מֶלֶךְ mélekh — “king” (final ך) (Gen 14:1). The word illustrates a final letter form and the spirant kh for כ without dagesh.

Basic Level: Final Letters and Reading Direction

Five letters take special forms at the end of a word: ך, ם, ן, ף, ץ. Hebrew is read and written from right to left.

Example (Final Forms): אֶרֶץ — ʾérets — “land” (final ץ), Gen 1:1; כֶּסֶף — késef — “silver” (final ף), Gen 23:15; בֵּן — bēn — “son” (final ן), Gen 5:7; מֶלֶךְ — mélekh — “king” (final ך), Gen 14:1; מַיִם — máyim — “water” (final ם), Gen 1:2.

Basic Level: The Masoretic Vowel System (Niqqud)

The Masoretes added a consistent system of vowel points and ancillary signs. Long and short qualities are contextual in Biblical Hebrew; the signs name quality more than absolute quantity.

Sign	Name	Typical Value
ָ	qāmeṣ	a-class; often long [aː]
ַ	pataḥ	a-class short [a]
ֵ	ṣērē	e-class; often long [eː]
ֶ	segōl	e-class short [e]
ִ	ḥîreq	i-class [i ~ iː]
ֹ	ḥōlem	o-class long [oː]
ֻ	qibbûṣ	u-class short [u]
וּ	šûreq	u-class long [uː]
ָ (qaṭan)	qāmeṣ qaṭan	o-quality [ɔ ~ o] in closed, unstressed syllables

Example (Vowels Marked): אוֹר — ʾôr — “light” (ḥōlem over ו as mater), Gen 1:3.

Example (Qāmeṣ Qaṭan): כָּל־הָאָרֶץ — kol-hāʾāreṣ — “all the earth” (qāmeṣ qaṭan in כָּל), Gen 11:1.

Shewa and the Reduced (Ḥateph) Vowels

The sign ְ (šĕwā) can mark either a very short, obscure vowel (mobile; naʿ) or zero vowel (quiescent; nāḥ). The reduced vowels combine a ḥateph sign with the three short vowels, used especially under gutturals.

Sign	Name	Value
ְ	šĕwā	very short ə or silent
ֲ	ḥăṭēph-pataḥ	very short a
ֱ	ḥăṭēph-segōl	very short e
ֳ	ḥăṭēph-qāmeṣ	very short o

Example (Mobile Shewa): וַיְהִי — wayĕhî — “and it came to pass,” with mobile šĕwā under י, Gen 1:5.

Example (Reduced Vowel with Guttural): אֱלֹהִים — ʾĕlōhîm — “God,” with ḥăṭēph‑segōl under א, Gen 1:1.

Matres Lectionis

The consonants ו, י, and (finally) ה often serve as matres lectionis, indicating vowel quality in the consonantal layer.

Example (Mater With ḥōlem): לוֹ — lô — “to him/for him,” Gen 12:12.

Example (Mater With ḥîreq): בֵּית — bēt/bêyt — “house (construct),” Prov 24:3.

Example (Final He As Mater): שָׂדֶה — śādeh — “field,” Gen 23:9.

Intermediate Level: Begadkephat, Dagesh, and Rafe

Six letters ב ג ד כ פ ת are subject to the begadkephat alternation. With dagesh lene (a dot), they are plosives; without, they are spirants. Dagesh forte (also a dot) marks gemination of a consonant, including non-begadkephat letters. Historically, rāfē (a small horizontal stroke) sometimes indicated the fricative quality when the dot was absent.

Example (Dagesh Lene): בְּרֵאשִׁית — bĕrēʾšît — initial בּ = [b], Gen 1:1.

Example (Dagesh Forte/Gemination): הַמֶּלֶךְ — ham‑mélekh — “the king,” with dagesh forte in מ after the article, 1 Kgs 1:1.

Example (Spirant Without Dagesh): רֹוחַ — rûaḥ — “spirit,” with ḥet and spirant ḥ; ו not affected here, Gen 1:2. Compare כָּל (k) vs כָּל/כָל realizations contextually.

Example (Mappiq in He): בָּהּ — bāh — “in her,” with mappiq in final ה marking consonantal h, Ruth 1:8.

Intermediate Level: Gutturals and Sibilants

The gutturals א ה ח ע resist gemination and often prefer a-class or reduced vowels; ר behaves similarly in several environments. The sibilants require careful distinction between שׁ (š), שׂ (ś), and ס (s). In Tiberian pointing, שׂ is marked with the dot on the left.

Example (Vowel Preference with Guttural): יַעֲקֹב — Yaʿăqōb — “Jacob,” with ḥăṭēph‑pataḥ under ע, Gen 25:26.

Example (Non-Gemination of Gutturals): הָרִים — hārîm — “mountains,” the article does not double the following guttural, Ps 121:1.

Example (Sin vs Shin): שִׁיר — šîr — “song,” Ps 96:1; versus שֵׂעִיר — śēʿîr — “Seir,” Gen 32:3.

Intermediate Level: Accents (ṭeʿamim) and Prosodic Marking

Masoretic accent signs indicate stress, syntactic breaks, and cantillation. The principal disjunctives include silluq (end of verse) and ʾatnaḥ (major pause mid‑verse). Conjunctives connect words phonologically to following words.

Example (Major Pause): יְהוָה רֹעִי לֹא אֶחְסָר׃ — YHWH rōʿî lōʾ eḥsār — “The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not lack.” Final silluq marks the end of the verse (Ps 23:1).

Example (ʾAtnaḥ Mid‑Verse): וַיִּקְרָא אֱלֹהִים לָאוֹר יוֹם׃ — wayyiqrāʾ ʾĕlōhîm lāʾôr yôm — “And God called the light Day;” the mid‑verse pause after yôm is marked by ʾatnaḥ (Gen 1:5).

Intermediate Level: Historical Scripts

Early Hebrew inscriptions use a paleo-Hebrew script distinct in form from later square (Assyrian) script. During and after the Babylonian exile, the square Aramaic script became standard for Jewish writings, while paleo-Hebrew persisted in limited contexts (e.g., some Qumran texts and Bar Kokhba coinage). The Tetragrammaton appears in paleo-Hebrew letters in certain early Greek manuscripts of the Minor Prophets.

Example (Script Is Conventional, Not Linguistic): שָׁלוֹם — šālôm — “peace,” whether written in paleo-Hebrew or square script, represents the same word (Num 6:26). The difference is graphic, not grammatical.

Advanced Level: Phonology, Orthography, and Diachronic Notes

Several letters cluster into phonological classes with grammatical consequences. The gutturals (א ה ח ע) influence vowel choice and syllabification. Emphatics (ṭ, ṣ, q) reflect historical articulations that differentiate lexical roots. Orthographic matres lectionis increase through time, with later books and Qumranic Hebrew showing fuller spellings.

Example (Orthographic Fullness): דָּוִד — Dāwîd — “David,” often spelled defectively without mater waw; later texts frequently write דָּוִיד, 1 Sam 16:13 vs. Neh 12:24.

Example (Emphatic Contrast Within Roots): צֶדֶק — ṣédeq — “righteousness,” Isa 1:27; compare סֶדֶק (non‑word) to see that ṣ vs s distinguishes roots and meanings.

Example (Ayin as Consonant vs Quiescent): רֵעַ — rēaʿ — “friend,” Prov 17:17, where ayin is consonantal; versus רֵעָה — rēʿāh — “evil deed,” Hos 9:15, with mater ה lengthening the final vowel; orthography guides syllabification and stress.

Advanced Level: Numeral Values (Gematria) and Non-Biblical Usage

Each letter was secondarily assigned a numerical value (ʾ=1 … tāw=400) used for numbering and gematria. This is post-biblical practice, already attested on Hasmonean coins and later rabbinic literature; it is not a grammatical feature of Biblical Hebrew, though useful for paleographic and cultural studies.

Example (Alphabetic Numbering in Textual Notes): Psalm 119 is an acrostic, each stanza beginning with a successive letter (א to ת), illustrating alphabetic ordering as a literary device (Ps 119:1–8 for א; 9–16 for ב, etc.).

Practical Mastery: Reading and Transcription Principles

Students should master letter names, shapes (including finals), and the correspondence between consonants and vowels. In reading aloud, observe dagesh distinctions, guttural preferences, and accentual stress. In transliteration, mark ʾ and ʿ accurately, distinguish š/ś/s, and retain emphatics ṭ/ṣ/q.

Example (Careful Transliteration): בָּרָא — bārāʾ — “he created,” Gen 1:1; note final ʾ for aleph.

Example (Word Division and Maqqef): כָּל־הַשָּׁמַיִם — kol‑haššāmayim — “all the heavens,” with maqqef joining the words and dagesh forte in š due to the article, Gen 2:1.

Consolidated Exercises

The following exercises reinforce alphabetic knowledge and reading.

A. Identify and Transliterate. Read right‑to‑left, then transliterate left‑to‑right: ח, ע, ל, י, ו, ט, ק, ב, ש, ג, צ, ד, ה, א, ע, ש, ד, כ, נ, ם, פ, כ, מ, ף, ם, ן, פ, ץ, ר, ך.

B. Name the Letters and Give Their English Equivalents Inside the Following Words: רְאוּבֵן (Rĕʾûbēn), שִׁמְעוֹן (Šimʿôn), זְכַרְיָה (Zĕkaryāh), יִצְחָק (Yiṣḥāq), דָּוִד (Dāwîd), יְשַׁעְיָה (Yĕšaʿyāhû); בָּרוּךְ (Bārûkh), טוֹבִיָּה (Ṭôviyyāh), פִּנְחָס (Pînḥās), מְנַחֵם (Mĕnaḥēm), יוֹנָה (Yônāh), יְחֶזְקֵאל (Yĕḥezqēʾl).

C. Transliterate the Following Verses or Phrases: וַיְהִי עֶרֶב וַיְהִי בֹקֶר יוֹם הַשִּׁשִּׁי — wayĕhî ʿérev wayĕhî bōqer yôm haššiššî (Gen 1:31); בְּרֵאשִׁית בָּרָא אֱלֹהִים אֵת הַשָּׁמַיִם וְאֵת הָאָרֶץ — Bĕrēʾšît bārāʾ ʾĕlōhîm ʾēt haššāmayim wĕʾēt hāʾāreṣ (Gen 1:1); וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמוֹת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הַבָּאִים מִצְרָיְמָה — wĕʾēlleh šĕmôt bĕnē Yisrāʾēl habbāʾîm Miṣraymāh (Exod 1:1).

D. Short Answer. How many letters are in the Hebrew alphabet? Twenty-two. Are there capital letters? No. Are letters joined in writing? No; each stands alone. Which letters participate in begadkephat and take dagesh lene at word-beginning? ב ג ד כ פ ת. Which letters have final forms? ך, ם, ן, ף, ץ.

Reference Notes for Further Study

For phonology and historical nuance, consult Gesenius §5–26; Joüon–Muraoka §§5–31; Waltke–O’Connor §6 and §7 on phonology and orthography; and the entries under each letter in BDB and HALOT for lexical breadth and orthographic variants.

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