The Codex and New Testament Collections: The Formation, Circulation, and Canonical Role of Early Christian Bookmaking

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Early Codex Construction and Collection Practices

With the emergence of the codex format by the end of the first century C.E., Christians possessed a uniquely practical vehicle for disseminating Scripture. Unlike scrolls, codices could contain multiple books and allowed for continuous, linear reading and easier textual reference—critical for a growing body of authoritative apostolic literature. The codex was not merely adopted out of convenience but became a defining characteristic of early Christian textual identity, supporting and accelerating the development of what would become the New Testament canon.

The extant manuscript evidence, though fragmentary, reveals early and intentional efforts to produce multibook codices. These were constructed with pagination, multiple folios, or through full extant codices, which aid in identifying collections. Several papyri, often listed individually, were in fact originally part of a single codex. Correcting the standard listings in the Nestle-Aland 27th edition (NA27), combinations such as P4+P64+P67, P15+P16, P49+P65, and potentially P77+P103 should be recognized as coming from unified codices. These examples testify to an early trend of multibook Christian production—an undertaking with profound theological and ecclesiastical implications.

The Gospel Codices: From Individual Texts to Canonical Fourfold Collections

The initial transmission of the Gospels occurred in isolated codices. Early Gospel manuscripts such as P1 (Matthew), P5 (John), P39 (John), P66 (John), and P106 (John) preserve evidence that each Gospel originally circulated independently. Pagination on several of these (e.g., P1 and P106) indicates codex format and a potential stand-alone book status. P66, found in a relatively complete state, is a single-Gospel codex containing the Gospel of John.

However, by the mid-second century, the pattern begins to shift toward intentional collection. Skeat’s reconstruction of P4+P64+P67 supports the notion of a fourfold Gospel codex. P75, containing Luke and John, and 0171, preserving Matthew and Luke, further illustrate early collection efforts. These developments are in harmony with the writings of second-century figures like Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, who speak of the “Gospels” in the plural and treat the fourfold Gospel collection as authoritative.

By the fourth century, the formation of a Gospel corpus was well established, as evidenced in codices such as Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and the Freer Gospels (Codex W). The trajectory is clear: individual Gospel traditions were soon unified into a canonical fourfold testimony, which became normative for the Church.

Pauline Corpus: The First New Testament Collection

Unlike the Gospels, Paul’s epistles appear to have entered circulation in collected form far earlier. Paul himself likely retained copies of his letters, as was common practice. Colossians 4:16 documents an early form of letter exchange and circulation, and Paul’s charge to Timothy to bring his “books, especially the parchments” (2 Tim. 4:13) most likely refers to personal codices of his writings. Trobisch’s research on ancient letter collections reveals that such collections were often initiated by the author. Timothy, listed as a co-author in multiple Pauline epistles, stands out as the most likely candidate for compiling Paul’s letters—either during Paul’s imprisonment or after his death. Luke has also been suggested, but Timothy’s proximity to Paul and explicit apostolic commission make him the more probable compiler.

Timothy would have excluded personal epistles (1–2 Timothy, Titus) from the initial corpus, focusing instead on public, ecclesial letters. This would explain why the earliest Pauline corpus included Romans through 2 Thessalonians, Philemon, and Hebrews, but omitted the Pastoral Epistles. The inclusion of Hebrews, particularly in Eastern churches, reflects the early view of its Pauline authorship or association. P46, the earliest extant physical corpus (dated ca. 150 C.E.), includes Hebrews immediately after Romans, consistent with this Eastern tradition.

Other fragmentary evidence of a Pauline collection appears in P13 (Hebrews, with pagination indicating Romans as the preceding epistle), P15+P16 (1 Corinthians and Philippians), P30 (1 and 2 Thessalonians), P49+P65 (Ephesians and 1 Thessalonians), and P92 (Ephesians and 2 Thessalonians). These point to widespread recognition and usage of a Pauline corpus well before the end of the second century. Gamble and Zuntz are correct in asserting that the Pauline collection was circulating as a cohesive unit by 100 C.E.

Collections of Paul’s letters, exclusive of other New Testament books, continue in later centuries, including Codex I (5th century), 0208 (6th century), and 0209 (7th century). The Pauline corpus, alongside the four Gospels, formed the backbone of the emerging New Testament canon.

Hebrews: Embedded in the Pauline Tradition

In the East, Hebrews was typically understood as Pauline or as connected to Paul’s apostolic circle, and thus it was included in early Pauline codices. This is evident in P46 and supported by P13 and possibly P114, which may have served as a title folio for a Pauline corpus with Hebrews leading. Western churches were more hesitant to include Hebrews due to questions of authorship, but its early placement alongside Paul’s epistles in Eastern manuscripts demonstrates its practical canonical inclusion in that sphere.

Acts and the General Epistles: A Delayed but Gradual Consolidation

Acts, originally linked with Luke’s Gospel, became separated once Luke was grouped with the other three Gospels. Thereafter, Acts began circulating independently, as seen in P38 (third century). Eventually, Acts was combined with the General Epistles in a unit known as the Praxapostolos. This pairing becomes evident in P74 (seventh century), Codex Bezae (ca. 400), and Codex 048 (5th century), which combine the Praxapostolos with Pauline epistles.

The General Epistles (James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, Jude) lacked early canonical consolidation. James is preserved in P20, P23, and P100, while 1 Peter is represented in P72 and P81. 2 Peter and Jude have less stable transmission, evidenced by independent, often idiosyncratic manuscript traditions (e.g., P72 and P78). The Johannine Epistles were less circulated than the Gospel, with 1 John found in P9 and 2 John in 0232—a manuscript whose pagination indicates it could represent the earliest known General Epistle collection.

Acts and the General Epistles did not share the early, widespread canonical status of the Gospels or Paul’s letters, which is reflected in the sporadic and regionally limited manuscript evidence. Their road to canonical acceptance was slower and more contested, particularly in the Western churches.

Revelation: Early Transmission and Ecclesiastical Hesitancy

The Apocalypse of John, though present from the late first century, faced early canonical resistance. Manuscripts such as P98, P18, and P24 (second and third century) suggest it was read by individuals but not broadly adopted for ecclesial use. The scribal hands on these manuscripts lack the characteristics of trained literary copyists, suggesting private rather than public or liturgical use.

P47, from the Chester Beatty collection, similarly reflects a less professional scribe, while only P115 displays the qualities of a skilled literary hand. This suggests that Revelation, though copied and revered by some, was not consistently accepted into the wider canon until the fourth century. Ecclesiastical concerns about its authorship, symbolism, and apocalyptic tone likely contributed to its delayed inclusion.

Canon Formation through Codex Construction

The emergence of codices containing exclusively the Gospels or exclusively the Pauline Epistles speaks volumes about early Christian canonical consciousness. The fact that such collections were copied, distributed, and preserved for church use affirms their early recognition as authoritative Scripture. The codex became not just a vehicle of preservation but a theological instrument, as Christians implicitly distinguished the writings of the apostles from other edifying but non-canonical works.

By the early fourth century, the canon was increasingly stabilized. The Muratorian Fragment (ca. 170) provides the first known listing of New Testament books, recognizing all but a few of the twenty-seven. Doubts remained regarding 2 Peter, Jude, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation—books which continued to face sporadic regional resistance.

Eusebius of Caesarea, writing in the early fourth century, recognized a distinction between universally acknowledged books (homologoumena) and disputed ones (antilegomena), though even the latter were widely read. It was Athanasius of Alexandria, in his Easter Letter of 367, who first listed the twenty-seven books of the New Testament in their entirety, stating definitively, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away.” His canon list was later ratified by the Synod of Hippo (393) and the Council of Carthage (397), ensuring ecclesiastical consensus.

Codices from the fourth century onward (e.g., Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus) reflect this settled canon, often binding the Old and New Testaments together in a single volume—evidence of the unified Scripture concept now firmly established in Christian thought.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Conclusion: The Codex as a Canonical Tool

The early Christian preference for the codex was not accidental. It was a deliberate strategy that fostered canon formation, standardized Christian Scripture, and distinguished the Church from Jewish and Greco-Roman literary traditions. Through codex construction, the early Church collected, preserved, and transmitted apostolic writings, forming the textual foundation of the New Testament.

From single-book Gospels to multi-epistle Pauline collections, from gradually forming Praxapostolos codices to the late incorporation of Revelation, the codex facilitated the Church’s recognition and retention of inspired writings. By the close of the fourth century, these efforts culminated in the canonical twenty-seven-book New Testament—copied, circulated, and preserved in the codex form, a medium ideally suited to the mission and doctrinal cohesion of the Church.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).