Aramaic Targums: Origin, Character, Usefulness, and Editions in Old Testament Textual Criticism

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History and Origin of the Aramaic Targums

The Aramaic Targums are paraphrastic translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Near East from approximately 600 B.C.E. onward. Their origin is intrinsically tied to the Babylonian Exile (607–537 B.C.E.), during which the Jewish people, deported into Babylonian territories, gradually adopted Aramaic as their everyday language. When the Jews returned to Jerusalem in 537 B.C.E. under Persian rule, Aramaic had already supplanted Hebrew in daily discourse. This linguistic shift necessitated the oral rendering of the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic during synagogue readings for the purpose of comprehensibility among the laity.

The term “Targum” derives from the Aramaic root “t-r-g-m,” meaning “to translate” or “to interpret.” Initially, Targums were oral explanations interwoven with expository commentary, offered by a meturgeman (translator/interpreter) during synagogue services. These renderings were not mere translations but paraphrastic in nature, often including explanatory expansions that reflected theological, liturgical, or exegetical tendencies of the Jewish community.

The formalization of the Targums into written form likely began in the early centuries of the Second Temple period, though the process was gradual. The earliest written Targums probably appeared during the 1st century B.C.E. or 1st century C.E., reaching fuller written codification by the 3rd to 5th centuries C.E. Despite their post-exilic development, the Aramaic Targums preserve linguistic, cultural, and theological insights that help textual critics understand how the text of the Hebrew Bible was understood and transmitted in antiquity.

Character of the Aramaic Targums

The character of the Targums varies depending on the community and manuscript tradition. Two main Targumic traditions developed: the Palestinian (Western) and the Babylonian (Eastern). The Palestinian Targums reflect the interpretive tendencies of the land of Israel, while the Babylonian Targums, particularly those from the academies at Sura and Pumbedita, became more standardized and authoritative.

Among the most important Targums are:

Targum Onqelos: A relatively literal and conservative Aramaic rendering of the Torah (Pentateuch), originating from the Babylonian tradition. Targum Onqelos refrains from theological embellishment and maintains close fidelity to the Hebrew text. This makes it the most significant Targum for textual criticism.

Targum Jonathan (also called Targum Yonatan): A Babylonian Targum covering the Former and Latter Prophets. Although slightly more interpretive than Targum Onqelos, it still reflects a consistent translation method and reveals key insights into the understanding of the prophetic corpus.

Palestinian Targums (Targum Neofiti, Fragment Targums, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan): These are characterized by expansive paraphrases, midrashic additions, and theological commentary. For instance, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan incorporates extensive aggadic and haggadic elements, thereby serving more as a homiletic tool than a strict translation. Targum Neofiti, however, though still expansive, is more valuable for textual criticism than other Palestinian Targums due to its closer alignment with the Hebrew Vorlage.

These Targums not only translated but also interpreted the Hebrew Bible, influenced by rabbinic Judaism, theological polemics, and contemporary circumstances. While this interpretive character can limit their utility for establishing the earliest form of the Hebrew text, it makes them essential for understanding the transmission and reception of that text.

Evaluation of Usefulness in Textual Criticism

The Aramaic Targums, while late in comparison to the Hebrew Vorlage, offer substantial value to Old Testament textual criticism under specific conditions. Their usefulness is contingent on the degree to which they preserve readings that reflect an earlier Hebrew textual tradition. When a Targum aligns with a reading found in the Dead Sea Scrolls or the Septuagint but differs from the Masoretic Text, it may indicate the existence of a now-lost variant Hebrew text.

Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan are particularly useful due to their controlled transmission and minimal exegetical expansion. They frequently preserve Hebrew readings known from pre-Masoretic traditions, and their divergences from the Masoretic Text can sometimes illuminate earlier textual forms.

In contrast, the Palestinian Targums are less reliable for textual reconstruction because of their pronounced midrashic character. However, even these can be valuable when their expansions presuppose a Hebrew base text that differs from the Masoretic Text and agrees with early versions like the Septuagint or readings in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The Targums are often cited alongside the Septuagint, the Peshitta, and the Vulgate in apparatuses of critical editions like the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta. However, Targumic evidence is always weighed with caution. Due to their paraphrastic nature, it is often difficult to distinguish between literal translation and exegetical interpretation.

Nonetheless, the Targums are indispensable for understanding how the Hebrew Bible was interpreted in the centuries leading up to and following the time of Christ. They shed light on how scribes and scholars understood ambiguous or difficult Hebrew words, especially in poetic or prophetic texts, and they offer comparative lexical evidence for certain terms.

Editions of the Aramaic Targums

The textual history of the Targums is complex, and numerous manuscript traditions exist. Modern critical editions aim to present reliable texts for scholarly use. Key editions include:

Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan: The standard edition is published in the “The Aramaic Bible” series, which provides the Aramaic text with English translation and commentary. Earlier editions include the edition by Alexander Sperber in The Bible in Aramaic, which, while now dated, remains foundational. Additional Hebrew-Aramaic editions from rabbinic sources also exist.

Targum Neofiti: This Targum, preserved in a single Vatican manuscript (Vat. Ebr. 1), was published in critical edition form by Alejandro Díez Macho and later analyzed by Martin McNamara. It is part of the “The Aramaic Bible” series as well. This Targum is particularly significant because it was discovered relatively recently (1956) and offers a fuller Palestinian Targum than the Fragment Targums or Pseudo-Jonathan.

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Though misattributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, this Targum is a late composite work with extensive aggadic content. It has been published in various rabbinic editions, but no definitive critical edition exists to the standard of Onqelos or Neofiti. Nonetheless, it remains widely studied for theological and midrashic analysis.

Fragment Targums: These partial Targums of the Pentateuch have been preserved in Genizah fragments and isolated manuscript traditions. Editions of these Targums are found in critical studies by scholars like M.L. Klein.

Textual critics consult these editions primarily for comparative purposes, always mindful of their theological and liturgical overlays. As with all secondary textual witnesses, the Targums are weighed against primary Hebrew texts like the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Masoretic tradition.

Final Considerations

The Aramaic Targums represent a vital stratum in the textual and interpretive history of the Hebrew Bible. While their paraphrastic style and theological embellishments can obscure the original Hebrew text, their consistent use in Jewish communities from the early Second Temple period into the medieval era attests to their lasting influence. For the textual critic, their value lies not in their originality but in the insights they offer into ancient readings, lexical choices, and exegetical practices. The Targums stand as witnesses—not to the original autographs, but to the enduring effort of faithful Jewish communities to understand and preserve the inspired Word of Jehovah amidst changing linguistic and cultural landscapes.

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About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).