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The Nabonidus Cylinders: An Ancient Record of Babylon’s Last King

The Nabonidus Cylinders are a set of clay cylinders inscribed with cuneiform text, dating from the reign of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon before its conquest by the Persians in 539 B.C.E. These artifacts were discovered at various locations, including the ancient city of Ur, and they provide a firsthand account of Nabonidus’s religious activities and his dedication to restoring temples. The inscriptions on these cylinders offer valuable insight into the reign of Nabonidus, his religious reforms, and his relationship with the chief Babylonian deity, Sin, the moon god.

Clay cylinder containing the name Belshazzar

While the Nabonidus Cylinders do not mention the events directly related to the fall of Babylon to the Persian king Cyrus the Great, they still serve an important role in understanding the historical and political context leading up to this monumental event. Furthermore, the information from these cylinders, along with other Babylonian and Persian records, can be compared with the biblical accounts, particularly those found in the books of Daniel and Isaiah, to shed light on the final years of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the fulfillment of prophecy regarding Babylon’s fall.

Nabonidus: A Different Kind of King

The reign of Nabonidus (556–539 B.C.E.) stands out in Babylonian history because of his unusual religious focus and extended absence from the capital city of Babylon. Unlike his predecessors, who emphasized the worship of Marduk, the chief deity of the Babylonian pantheon, Nabonidus instead elevated the worship of Sin, the moon god, and embarked on a series of temple restorations dedicated to Sin, particularly in the city of Harran. This shift in religious emphasis is documented in the Nabonidus Cylinders, where the king boasts of his piety and devotion to restoring the temples of the gods.

Nabonidus’s religious policies were not without controversy. By focusing on Sin, Nabonidus alienated the powerful priesthood of Marduk in Babylon, creating tension within the empire. This religious departure may have contributed to the weakening of his rule, as the Babylonian elites and priesthood viewed his absence from Babylon—he spent many years in the Arabian oasis of Tayma—as neglect of the city’s well-being and its religious institutions.

This terracotta cylinder records, in 3 columns, the building operations done by Nabonidus

The Bible does not mention Nabonidus by name, but his reign is crucial to understanding the backdrop of Daniel 5, which records the fall of Babylon during the reign of his son Belshazzar. While Nabonidus was still technically king at the time of Babylon’s fall, Belshazzar served as co-regent and was in charge of Babylon’s defense. The biblical narrative of Belshazzar’s feast and the subsequent writing on the wall (Daniel 5:1-31) aligns with the historical context of the decline of the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus’s reign.

The Religious Shift: From Marduk to Sin

One of the most striking features of the Nabonidus Cylinders is the emphasis on Sin, the moon god. Nabonidus’s devotion to Sin was a departure from the traditional Babylonian focus on Marduk, the god of Babylon. This religious shift can be seen in the cylinders’ inscriptions, where Nabonidus prays for the well-being of his son, Belshazzar, and praises Sin for his guidance and protection.

This religious shift may explain some of the discontent in Babylon during Nabonidus’s reign. By prioritizing the worship of Sin over Marduk, Nabonidus risked alienating the powerful priests of Marduk, who played a significant role in maintaining the stability and religious legitimacy of the Babylonian kingship. The priests of Marduk were central to the Babylonian New Year festival, which symbolized the king’s role as Marduk’s representative on earth. By neglecting this important religious institution, Nabonidus undermined his own authority in the eyes of the Babylonian elites.

Cylinder of Nabonidus from the temple of God Sin at UR, Mesopotamia

This internal religious conflict likely weakened Babylon politically, making it more vulnerable to external threats. In Isaiah 47:1-3, the prophet foretells the humiliation of Babylon, describing its downfall in terms of divine judgment against its pride and idolatry. The Bible presents Babylon’s fall as an inevitable result of its moral and spiritual corruption, and Nabonidus’s religious reforms, which destabilized the empire’s traditional structures, may have hastened its decline.

The Biblical Account of Babylon’s Fall

The Bible provides a detailed account of the fall of Babylon in the book of Daniel, particularly in Daniel 5, where the famous story of Belshazzar’s feast takes place. While the Nabonidus Cylinders do not directly describe the fall of Babylon, they are invaluable for understanding the broader historical and cultural context in which these biblical events occurred.

In Daniel 5, Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, holds a great feast in Babylon, during which he uses the sacred vessels from the temple in Jerusalem, an act of sacrilege against Jehovah (Daniel 5:1-4). During the feast, a mysterious hand appears and writes a message on the wall, which Daniel interprets as a divine judgment against Belshazzar and Babylon: “Mene, Mene, Tekel, and Parsin” (Daniel 5:25). That very night, the Persians, under Cyrus the Great, entered the city, and Belshazzar was killed (Daniel 5:30-31).

The Nabonidus Cylinder of Sippar on display in the British Museum

The Bible presents Babylon’s fall as part of Jehovah’s judgment, fulfilling the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah. In Isaiah 45:1-2, Jehovah names Cyrus as His chosen instrument for the overthrow of Babylon, declaring that He will “go before [Cyrus] and level the exalted places.” Similarly, Jeremiah 51:11 foretells that Jehovah would “stir up the spirit of the kings of the Medes,” who would lead the conquest of Babylon. These prophecies underscore the biblical theme that Jehovah is sovereign over the rise and fall of nations, using kings and empires to accomplish His purposes.

The Nabonidus Cylinders, while not focused on Babylon’s fall, provide important historical context for the reign of Nabonidus and Belshazzar, the political instability within Babylon, and the religious tensions that contributed to the city’s vulnerability to conquest. The Bible’s portrayal of Babylon’s pride and idolatry, and its eventual downfall, aligns with the historical realities documented in these ancient inscriptions.

Nabonidus, Belshazzar, and Biblical Accuracy

One of the most important contributions of the Nabonidus Cylinders to biblical archaeology is the confirmation of the existence of Belshazzar, the co-regent of Babylon during the city’s fall. For many years, critics of the Bible pointed to the absence of Belshazzar in other historical records as evidence against the accuracy of the book of Daniel. However, the discovery of the Nabonidus Cylinders provided definitive evidence that Belshazzar was a real historical figure, serving as co-regent while his father, Nabonidus, was absent from Babylon.

The cylinders mention that Nabonidus entrusted the kingship of Babylon to his son, Belshazzar, while he was away in Tayma. This corroborates the biblical account in Daniel 5, where Belshazzar is referred to as the king of Babylon. Furthermore, the fact that Daniel offers to make the interpreter of the writing on the wall the “third ruler in the kingdom” (Daniel 5:16) fits perfectly with the historical reality that Nabonidus was the first ruler, and Belshazzar was the second. The offer of the third position in the kingdom highlights the accuracy of the biblical narrative in reflecting the political structure of Babylon at the time.

The Fall of Babylon: A Fulfillment of Prophecy

The fall of Babylon to Cyrus the Great is one of the most significant events in biblical history, as it marked the fulfillment of numerous prophecies concerning Babylon’s destruction and the eventual return of the Jewish exiles to their homeland. The Bible emphasizes that Babylon’s downfall was not merely a political or military event but a direct act of divine judgment. Isaiah 13:19 describes Babylon as “the glory of kingdoms” that would be overthrown by Jehovah’s judgment, and Jeremiah 51:37 declares that Babylon would become “a heap of ruins, a haunt of jackals.”

Cyrus’s conquest of Babylon in 539 B.C.E. was achieved with minimal bloodshed, as the Persians diverted the Euphrates River and entered the city through its riverbed. This tactic allowed them to bypass Babylon’s formidable defenses, fulfilling the prophecy in Isaiah 44:27, where Jehovah declares, “I will dry up your rivers.” Cyrus’s victory was swift, and he immediately took control of the city, marking the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

The fall of Babylon also had profound implications for the Jewish people, who had been exiled to Babylon following the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E. Under Cyrus’s decree, as recorded in Ezra 1:1-4, the Jewish exiles were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. This event marked the beginning of the Restoration period in Jewish history, fulfilling the prophecy in Jeremiah 29:10, where Jehovah promises that after seventy years of exile, He would bring His people back to their land.

The Nabonidus Cylinders in Biblical Archaeology

The discovery of the Nabonidus Cylinders has provided crucial historical evidence that supports the biblical account of Babylon’s final years. While the cylinders themselves do not mention the fall of Babylon or the role of Cyrus, they offer valuable insight into the reign of Nabonidus, his religious policies, and the political situation in Babylon during this period. The confirmation of Belshazzar’s existence through the Nabonidus Cylinders is particularly significant, as it vindicates the accuracy of the biblical account in Daniel 5, where Belshazzar is a central figure.

From a broader perspective, the Nabonidus Cylinders highlight the reliability of the Bible as a historical document. The Bible’s portrayal of Babylon as a proud and idolatrous empire destined for judgment aligns with the historical realities of Nabonidus’s reign and the eventual conquest of the city by the Persians. The fall of Babylon, as prophesied by Isaiah and Jeremiah, demonstrates Jehovah’s sovereignty over the nations and His ability to bring about His purposes through the rise and fall of empires.

The Nabonidus Cylinders, along with other archaeological discoveries, continue to provide valuable context for understanding the historical events recorded in the Bible. They remind us that the Bible is not only a spiritual text but also a reliable historical record that accurately reflects the political and religious dynamics of the ancient Near East.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).