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The Old Testament has been preserved through various textual traditions and translations that have played a crucial role in the transmission of the biblical text. Beyond the Septuagint, several ancient versions have provided significant insights into the textual history of the Hebrew Scriptures. These include the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aramaic Targums, and the Latin Vulgate. Each of these versions has a unique historical and textual background that sheds light on the development and preservation of the Old Testament.

The Samaritan Pentateuch: A Unique Transcription of the Torah

The Samaritan Pentateuch stands as one of the oldest versions of the Hebrew Scriptures, specifically containing only the first five books of the Bible, known as the Torah. This version provides a fascinating glimpse into the textual transmission of the Pentateuch and the unique religious practices of the Samaritans.

Historical Background of the Samaritan Pentateuch

The Samaritan Pentateuch traces its origins to the Samaritan community, which emerged from the remnants of the ten northern tribes of Israel following the Assyrian conquest of the northern kingdom in the 8th century B.C.E. (2 Kings 17:24-41). The Samaritans were a mixed population, consisting of Israelites who remained in the land and foreigners brought in by the Assyrians. Over time, they developed a distinct form of worship centered on Mount Gerizim, rather than Jerusalem, and accepted only the Pentateuch as their sacred text.

It is believed that the transcription of the Samaritan Pentateuch occurred around the 4th century B.C.E., though some scholars suggest it may have been as late as the 2nd century B.C.E. This version is not a translation but rather a transliteration of the Hebrew text into Samaritan script, which developed from ancient Hebrew. As such, it serves as a witness to the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch during that time.

The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Variants in the Samaritan Pentateuch

While the Samaritan Pentateuch is largely consistent with the Masoretic Text, it contains approximately 6,000 variations, many of which are minor. Some differences, however, are theologically significant. For example, the Samaritan Pentateuch emphasizes Mount Gerizim as the central place of worship, as seen in its version of Exodus 20:17, where it adds a commandment about building an altar on Mount Gerizim. This reflects the Samaritan belief that their place of worship, rather than Jerusalem, was divinely chosen.

Despite these variations, the Samaritan Pentateuch is valuable for textual criticism because it provides an independent witness to the Hebrew text. When compared with the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and other ancient versions, it helps scholars identify potential textual changes or corruptions that may have occurred over time.

For example, Deuteronomy 27:4 in the Samaritan Pentateuch reads, “And when you cross over the Jordan, you shall set up these stones, which I command you today, on Mount Gerizim,” whereas the Masoretic Text reads “on Mount Ebal.” This variant highlights the Samaritans’ theological focus on Mount Gerizim but also opens a discussion about textual transmission and theological motivations.

The Aramaic Targums: Paraphrasing the Hebrew Text for a New Audience

The Aramaic Targums represent another significant version of the Old Testament that played a vital role in Jewish religious life, particularly during the time when Aramaic had become the common language of many Jews.

Historical Development of the Targums

The word “Targum” means “interpretation” or “paraphrase” in Aramaic. The Targums arose from the need for the Hebrew Scriptures to be understood by Jews who no longer spoke Hebrew as their primary language. After the Babylonian exile (6th century B.C.E.), Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Persian Empire and remained widely spoken among Jews in the regions of Persia and the surrounding territories.

By the time of Nehemiah (5th century B.C.E.), public readings of the Hebrew Scriptures were often accompanied by an oral translation or paraphrase in Aramaic so that the people could understand. This practice is mentioned in Nehemiah 8:8, where the Levites “read from the book, from the Law of God, clearly, and they gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading.” This reflects the early development of the Targum tradition.

While the oral tradition of the Targums dates back to the post-exilic period, the written versions of the Targums likely assumed their final form no earlier than the 5th century C.E. The most famous of these are Targum Onkelos (on the Torah) and Targum Jonathan (on the Prophets). Though they are paraphrases rather than direct translations, the Targums provide important interpretive insights and linguistic information about how the Hebrew text was understood by Jewish communities during this period.

The Nature of the Targums and Their Use in Textual Criticism

The Aramaic Targums are not precise translations but rather paraphrases that often include interpretive elements, reflecting the theological concerns and cultural context of the time. They also contain explanations and expansions that help clarify difficult passages in the Hebrew text.

For example, in Genesis 3:15, where the Hebrew text says, “He shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel,” the Targum adds the explanation that this refers to the future Messiah’s victory over Satan. Such interpretive expansions make the Targums valuable for understanding how Jewish communities interpreted key Messianic prophecies and other theological themes.

In the field of textual criticism, the Targums can be used as secondary witnesses to the Hebrew text. Though they are not always reliable for reconstructing the original wording of Scripture, they provide insight into the text’s interpretation and transmission during the Second Temple period and beyond. Their paraphrastic nature also offers a glimpse into the cultural and religious context in which the Hebrew Scriptures were read and understood.

The Latin Vulgate: Jerome’s Translation of the Old Testament

The Latin Vulgate is one of the most important translations of the Old Testament and has had a profound influence on Western Christianity. Though associated primarily with the Roman Catholic Church, the Vulgate also holds historical significance in understanding the transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures.

The Origins of the Vulgate

The term “Vulgate” comes from the Latin word “vulgatus,” meaning “common” or “popular.” Jerome, the scholar who produced this translation, sought to create a version of the Bible that could be easily understood by ordinary people in the Western Roman Empire, where Latin had become the dominant language.

Jerome began his work on the Vulgate around 390 C.E., translating the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew text. This was a significant departure from earlier Latin translations, which had been based primarily on the Greek Septuagint. Jerome’s decision to translate from the Hebrew was controversial at the time, as the Septuagint was widely regarded as the authoritative version of the Old Testament. However, Jerome believed that returning to the Hebrew text would yield a more accurate translation.

Jerome’s translation, completed in 405 C.E., became the standard version of the Bible in the Western Church. While Jerome included the Apocryphal books found in the Septuagint, he clearly distinguished between canonical and non-canonical books, reflecting his belief that only the Hebrew Scriptures were divinely inspired.

The Role of the Vulgate in Textual Criticism

Though the Vulgate is a Latin translation, its importance for Old Testament textual criticism cannot be overstated. Jerome’s translation is notable because it was based on Hebrew manuscripts that predate the Masoretic Text by several centuries. As such, the Vulgate provides an independent witness to the Hebrew text, and its readings can sometimes help clarify difficult or ambiguous passages.

For example, in Isaiah 7:14, the Hebrew text uses the word “almah,” which can mean “young woman.” Jerome, following the Septuagint, translated this as “virgo,” meaning “virgin,” reflecting the early Christian interpretation of this passage as a prophecy of the virgin birth of Christ (Matthew 1:23). This demonstrates how the Vulgate can provide insight into early Christian theological interpretation while also serving as a valuable resource for textual comparison.

Comparative Value of the Samaritan Pentateuch, Targums, and Vulgate

Each of these ancient versions—the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aramaic Targums, and the Latin Vulgate—offers unique contributions to our understanding of the Old Testament text. While the Masoretic Text remains the primary Hebrew witness to the Old Testament, these versions provide additional layers of textual history and interpretation.

The Samaritan Pentateuch helps scholars identify theological and textual variations that arose in different Jewish communities, especially regarding the location of worship. The Targums offer interpretive insights and reveal how the Hebrew Scriptures were understood by Aramaic-speaking Jews, particularly in the context of Messianic prophecies. The Latin Vulgate, as one of the earliest translations from the Hebrew, provides a valuable witness to the state of the Hebrew text in the 4th and 5th centuries C.E.

Textual criticism relies on the comparison of these various versions to reconstruct the most original form of the biblical text. In cases where the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Vulgate diverge, scholars must carefully weigh the evidence to determine the most likely original reading. This process is essential for preserving the integrity of the biblical text and ensuring that modern translations reflect the inspired words as closely as possible.

Ancient Versions as Witnesses to the Text

While the Masoretic Text forms the basis of most modern translations of the Old Testament, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aramaic Targums, and the Latin Vulgate each play an important role in the study of Scripture. These versions provide independent witnesses to the Hebrew text, offering valuable insights into the history of the Old Testament’s transmission. By comparing these versions with the Masoretic Text and other ancient manuscripts, biblical scholars are better equipped to uncover the earliest form of the text and to understand the theological perspectives of the communities that produced these versions.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).