Introduction to New Testament Archaeology

The New Testament stands as a central document for Christian faith, chronicling the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, as well as the early history of the Christian church. The authenticity and historical reliability of these texts have been subjects of intense scrutiny and debate, particularly within the fields of biblical scholarship and archaeology. However, archaeological discoveries over the past century have provided substantial support for the historical accuracy of the New Testament, confirming many details that were once doubted or dismissed by skeptics.

Archaeology, as a scientific discipline, involves the systematic study of ancient societies through the excavation and analysis of material remains, such as buildings, inscriptions, and everyday objects. When applied to the New Testament, archaeology has brought to light evidence that corroborates the events, places, and people mentioned in the biblical narrative. This article will explore the contributions of archaeology to the understanding of the New Testament, focusing on the historical accuracy of Luke, corroboration by non-Christian historians, and evidence related to the crucifixion of Jesus.

The Historical Accuracy of Luke

The Census in Luke 2:1–5

One of the most scrutinized passages in the New Testament is Luke’s account of the census conducted during the reign of Augustus, which led to Joseph and Mary traveling to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. Luke 2:1-5 states: “Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This was the first registration when Quirinius was governor of Syria. And all went to be registered, each to his own town.”

Critics have long challenged this account, citing the lack of historical records confirming a worldwide census at that time, as well as the apparent discrepancy involving Quirinius, who is known to have conducted a census in 6 C.E., too late for the birth of Jesus. However, archaeological and historical research has offered plausible explanations for these difficulties.

First, it is now understood that the term “world” (Greek: oikoumene) in Luke’s context likely refers to the Roman Empire, rather than the entire globe. Moreover, it is well documented that Augustus implemented periodic censuses throughout the empire, which were carried out in different provinces at different times. Egypt, for instance, had regular censuses every 14 years, and similar practices were likely followed in other provinces.

Regarding Quirinius, Luke’s wording in the original Greek allows for a translation that this census took place before Quirinius was governing Syria. Some scholars suggest that Quirinius held an earlier position of authority that allowed him to oversee a census in the region before his official term as governor. This view is supported by evidence indicating that censuses were often administered over extended periods, involving multiple stages of registration and taxation.

EXCURSION Bible Background and Archaeology Regarding Quirinius

What Was the Census That Led to Jesus’ Birth in Bethlehem?

According to the Gospel of Luke, Caesar Augustus issued a decree for a census across the Roman Empire, prompting “all people [to travel] to be registered, each one to his own city” (Luke 2:1-3). Joseph, Jesus’ adoptive father, was from Bethlehem, so he and Mary traveled there to comply with the decree, resulting in Jesus being born in Bethlehem. These registrations were primarily for tax collection and military conscription.

When the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 B.C.E., they adopted the Egyptian census system, which was already well-established. Scholars believe the Romans applied similar procedures throughout their empire.

Evidence of such a registration is found in an edict from the Roman governor of Egypt in 104 C.E. A copy of this edict, preserved in the British Library, states: “Gaius Vibius Maximus, Prefect of Egypt (says): Seeing that the time has come for the house to house census, it is necessary to compel all those who for any cause whatsoever are residing out of their districts to return to their own homes, that they may both carry out the regular order of the census and may also attend diligently to the cultivation of their allotments.”

Why Did Joseph Contemplate Giving Mary a Certificate of Divorce When They Were Only Engaged?

According to Matthew’s Gospel, Joseph discovered Mary was pregnant while she “was promised in marriage to Joseph” but before they were united. Not knowing that Mary was pregnant “by the Holy Spirit,” Joseph likely thought she had been unfaithful, leading him to consider divorce (Matthew 1:18-20).

Among the Jews, engaged couples were considered already married, though they did not live together as husband and wife until the wedding formalities were completed. Engagement was so binding that if the marriage did not occur due to a change of heart or another compelling reason, the woman needed a divorce certificate to remarry. If an engaged woman’s husband died before the wedding, she was considered a widow. Conversely, if she committed fornication during her engagement, she was deemed an adulteress and faced death (Deuteronomy 22:23, 24).

Joseph pondered the consequences of making Mary a public spectacle. Although he felt obligated to report the matter to the authorities, he wanted to protect her and avoid scandal. Thus, he decided to divorce her quietly. A single mother with a divorce certificate would indicate she had been married.

Quirinius: Roman Governor and the Census Leading to Jesus’ Birth

Quirinius’ Role in the Census

Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was the Roman governor of Syria during the “registration” ordered by Caesar Augustus, which led to Jesus being born in Bethlehem (Luke 2:1-2). This census required everyone to travel to their ancestral towns for registration, which is why Joseph and Mary went to Bethlehem.

Historical Context and Governorship

Quirinius’ name appears in the Chronographus Anni CCCLIIII, a list of Roman consuls, alongside Messala in 12 B.C.E. Roman historian Tacitus describes Quirinius as an accomplished soldier who earned a consulship under Augustus and later became an adviser to Gaius Caesar in Armenia. Quirinius died in 21 C.E.

Quirinius and Syria

Jewish historian Josephus mentions Quirinius’ assignment as governor of Syria, coinciding with Coponius’ appointment as the Roman ruler of Judea. Josephus notes that Quirinius was tasked with assessing property in Syria and Judea, which led to a census that sparked a revolt led by Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37). This revolt occurred in the “thirty-seventh year after Caesar’s defeat of Antony at Actium,” placing Quirinius as governor in 6 C.E.

Evidence of Dual Governorship

For a long time, Quirinius’ governorship in 6 C.E. was the only one confirmed by secular history. However, the Lapis Tiburtinus inscription found in 1764 suggests he served as governor of Syria twice. Although the inscription does not name Quirinius, many scholars believe it refers to him. Inscriptions from Antioch also support the idea of an earlier governorship during the B.C.E. period.

Scholarly Debate on Dates

There is debate about where Quirinius fits among the recorded governors of Syria. Josephus lists Quintilius Varus as governor during and after Herod the Great’s death, with Saturninus as his predecessor. Some scholars propose Quirinius governed Syria around 3-2 B.C.E., aligning with the Biblical account of Jesus’ birth in 2 B.C.E. However, these scholars often rely on the incorrect date of 4 B.C.E. for Herod’s death.

Luke’s Account and Historical Accuracy

Luke’s use of the term “governor” (he·ge·monʹ) could refer to various Roman officials, suggesting Quirinius might have served as a special legate with extraordinary powers during the “first registration.” Josephus mentions dual rulership in Syria, with Saturninus and Volumnius serving simultaneously. This supports the possibility of Quirinius serving alongside Saturninus or Varus before Herod’s death, likely in 1 B.C.E.

Supporting Evidence and Scholarly Views

An inscription found in Venice (Lapis Venetus) refers to a census conducted by Quirinius in Syria, but it does not specify which governorship it pertains to. Luke’s historical accuracy lends credibility to his account of Quirinius as governor around Jesus’ birth. Josephus, born in 37 C.E., wrote decades later, while Luke was active by 49 C.E., making him a more reliable source. Justin Martyr, a second-century Palestinian, cited Roman records to support Luke’s account, and early historians did not challenge it.

END OF EXCURSION

Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12–17)

Another example of Luke’s historical accuracy is found in Acts 18:12-17, where he mentions Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, before whom the apostle Paul was brought on charges by the Jews of Corinth. For many years, this reference was met with skepticism due to the lack of corroborative evidence. However, in the early 20th century, an inscription was discovered at Delphi, Greece, that confirmed Gallio’s position as proconsul of Achaia around 51 C.E., precisely the time during which Paul was in Corinth.

The Gallio Inscription, as it is known, is a letter from the Roman Emperor Claudius to the city of Delphi, mentioning Gallio’s appointment as proconsul. This discovery not only affirms Luke’s accuracy in naming Gallio but also provides a valuable chronological anchor for the events described in Acts, helping scholars to date Paul’s ministry more precisely.

Lysanias, Tetrarch of Abilene (Luke 3:1)

In Luke 3:1, the evangelist situates the beginning of John the Baptist’s ministry during the reign of several rulers, including “Lysanias, tetrarch of Abilene.” Critics once argued that Luke was mistaken because the only known Lysanias ruled over Chalcis and died in 36 B.C.E., well before the time of John the Baptist. However, an inscription discovered near Damascus mentions another Lysanias, who was tetrarch of Abilene during the reign of Tiberius Caesar, precisely when Luke says John began his ministry.

The temple inscription reads:

Inscription		Translation
Huper tes ton kurion Se[baston]		For the salvation of the Au[gust] lords
soterias kai tou sum[pantos]		and of [all] their household,
auton oikou, Numphaios Ae[tou]		Nymphaeus, free[dman] of Ea[gle]
Lusianiou tetrarchou apele[utheors]		Lysanias tetrarch established
ten odon ktisas k.t.l		this street and other things.

The text above contains some key elements that are consistent with the translation of Greek inscriptions from the Roman period, particularly those that honor the Roman emperors or members of their household. Let’s analyze and translate the Greek text more accurately:

Greek Text:

1. Huper tes ton kurion Se[baston]

   • Translation: “For the salvation of the August Lords”
   • Commentary: The phrase “ton kurion Se[baston]” indeed refers to the Roman emperors, often called “Sebastos” (Augustus in Latin), meaning “revered” or “venerable.” The translation as “For the salvation of the August Lords” is accurate and refers to prayers or dedications made for the well-being of the emperors.

2. soterias kai tou sum[pantos] auton oikou

   • Translation: “and for the salvation of all their household,”
   • Commentary: The phrase continues to emphasize the well-being not just of the emperors but of their entire household or family.

3. Numphaios Ae[tou]

   • Translation: “Nymphaeus, freedman of [the Eagle (perhaps a symbol or specific reference)]”
   • Commentary: The term “Ae[tou]” could be a reference to the Eagle, a symbol often associated with Roman power or the legion, but without more context, it’s difficult to say definitively. It might also refer to a specific person or title.

4. Lusianiou tetrarchou apele[utheors]

   • Translation: “Lysanias, the tetrarch, freedman”
   • Commentary: This section refers to Lysanias, who is a tetrarch (a ruler of a quarter of a region) and identifies someone connected to him as a freedman.

5. ten odon ktisas k.t.l.

   • Translation: “who established this road and other things.”
   • Commentary: This phrase mentions the construction or establishment of a road, which was likely a significant public work dedicated to the honor of the emperors.

Revised Complete Translation:

“For the salvation of the August Lords and for the welfare of all their household, Nymphaeus, freedman of Lysanias the tetrarch, established this road and other things.”

Translation: “For the salvation of the August Lords and all their household, Nymphaeus, freedman of Abimelech, son of Lysanias the Tetrarch, having constructed the road, also built the temple and established the markets, having provided them at his own expense for the homeland out of piety.”

Commentary:

• August Lords: Likely referring to Roman emperors, with “Sebastos” (Augustus) being a title used for emperors.
• Nymphaeus: The person who dedicated this work, likely a freedman (former slave) of a family with ties to Lysanias.
• Lysanias the Tetrarch: Historical figure mentioned in the New Testament (Luke 3:1). He was a ruler in the region around Damascus.
• Temple and Markets: The inscription commemorates the construction of significant public works, suggesting this was a dedication or a commemoration of civic contributions.

This inscription highlights a public benefaction by a prominent local figure under Roman rule, dedicated to the emperor and the Roman imperial family.

The inscription indeed honors the Roman emperors (likely including Caesar Augustus) and dedicates the construction of a road in their name. The mention of “salvation” and the emperors’ household is typical of such inscriptions, showing loyalty and reverence to the ruling powers.

This inscription not only confirms the existence of a second Lysanias but also underscores Luke’s attention to historical detail. Such discoveries highlight the value of archaeology in resolving apparent discrepancies in the biblical text and in affirming the reliability of the Gospel accounts.

Erastus, Treasurer of Corinth (Acts 19:22; Romans 16:23)

In Acts 19:22 and Romans 16:23, Paul mentions a man named Erastus, who held a significant civic position in Corinth. In Romans, Paul specifically refers to him as “the city treasurer.” For a long time, this reference was seen as potentially fictional or at least difficult to verify. However, in the early 20th century, archaeologists uncovered a pavement in Corinth bearing an inscription that reads: “Erastus, in return for his aedileship, laid this pavement at his own expense.”

This inscription provides compelling evidence that Erastus was a real person and held a prominent public office in Corinth, as described by Paul. The discovery of such an inscription highlights the interconnectedness of the biblical narrative with the historical and civic life of the Roman Empire. It also illustrates how archaeology can shed light on the social and political contexts in which the early Christians lived and worked.

Luke’s Geographical and Cultural Accuracy

In addition to these specific examples, Luke’s writings are notable for their geographical and cultural accuracy. Throughout the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, Luke references 32 countries, 54 cities, and 9 islands, all without error. He uses correct titles for various officials, including “proconsul” for the governor of Cyprus (Acts 13:7-8), “politarchs” for the magistrates of Thessalonica (Acts 17:6), “Asiarchs” for the officials in Ephesus (Acts 19:31), and “first man of the island” for the chief official in Malta (Acts 28:7).

This level of detail led the renowned archaeologist and historian Sir William Ramsay to revise his earlier critical stance on the reliability of Acts. After extensive research and archaeological work in Asia Minor, Ramsay concluded that “Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense… In short, this author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians.”

Ramsay’s endorsement of Luke’s historical accuracy underscores the importance of archaeology in validating the New Testament’s portrayal of historical events. It also serves as a testament to the care and precision with which the Gospel writers, under divine inspiration, recorded the events they witnessed and investigated.

Confirmation by Non-Christian Historians

Tacitus and Suetonius on Jesus and Early Christians

One of the most common misconceptions about the New Testament is the claim that there is no mention of Jesus outside the biblical texts. However, several Roman historians and writers from the first and early second centuries C.E. make references to Jesus and the early Christians, providing external corroboration of the New Testament accounts.

The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 116 C.E., provides one of the most direct references to Jesus in his Annals. In describing the persecution of Christians under Emperor Nero following the Great Fire of Rome in 64 C.E., Tacitus writes: “Christus, from whom the name [Christians] had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate.” This statement not only confirms that Jesus was a historical figure who was crucified under Pilate but also aligns with the New Testament accounts of Jesus’ death.

Similarly, the Roman biographer Suetonius, in his work The Lives of the Caesars, mentions that Emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome because they were causing disturbances “at the instigation of Chrestus.” While some debate exists over whether “Chrestus” refers directly to Christ or to a Jewish agitator, the reference is still significant as it shows that the figure of Christ was known in Rome and was associated with social unrest, consistent with the tension between early Christians and Jewish authorities mentioned in Acts.

Pliny the Younger’s Letter to Trajan

Pliny the Younger, a Roman governor in Bithynia, wrote a letter to Emperor Trajan around 112 C.E., seeking advice on how to deal with Christians in his province. In the letter, Pliny describes the practices of Christians, noting that they would gather before dawn to sing hymns to Christ “as to a god,” bind themselves by an oath to avoid wicked deeds, and partake in a communal meal.

Pliny’s letter is significant because it confirms several key aspects of early Christian worship and belief, including the deification of Jesus, the ethical commitments of Christians, and the communal nature of their gatherings. This non-Christian testimony corroborates the New Testament’s depiction of early Christian practices and their distinctiveness within the Roman world.

Josephus on John the Baptist, James, and Jesus

The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, writing in the late first century C.E., provides valuable testimony about several figures mentioned in the New Testament. In his work Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus describes the execution of John the Baptist by Herod Antipas, aligning with the account found in the Gospels (Matthew 14:1-12; Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:19-20). Josephus portrays John as a righteous man who called the Jews to moral reform and baptism, corroborating the biblical portrayal of John as a prophetic figure.

Josephus also mentions James, “the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ,” in the context of his execution by the high priest Ananus. This reference is significant because it not only confirms James’ existence as a prominent leader of the early Christian community in Jerusalem but also identifies Jesus as a known figure, called “the Christ” by his followers.

Perhaps the most debated passage in Josephus’ writings is the Testimonium Flavianum, a brief account of Jesus found in Antiquities 18:63-64. While the authenticity of this passage has been questioned due to its seemingly Christian tone, most scholars agree that Josephus did write something about Jesus, with later Christian copyists possibly embellishing the text. A reconstructed version of the passage, which removes the likely interpolations, still acknowledges Jesus as a wise teacher who performed “surprising deeds,” was crucified under Pilate, and continued to have followers after his death.

Josephus’ writings, therefore, provide valuable non-Christian confirmation of key figures and events in the New Testament, supporting the historicity of the Gospel accounts and the early Christian movement.

Archaeological Evidence Relating to Jesus’ Crucifixion

The Nazareth Decree

One of the intriguing pieces of evidence related to the aftermath of Jesus’ crucifixion is the Nazareth Decree, a stone inscription discovered in Nazareth in 1878. The decree, issued by Emperor Claudius (41-54 C.E.), imposes the death penalty for anyone caught disturbing or removing bodies from tombs. While similar decrees were issued in the Roman Empire to protect tombs from vandalism, the severity of the penalty in this case—capital punishment—has led some scholars to connect it with the early Christian claim of Jesus’ resurrection.

The timing and location of the decree are particularly suggestive. Claudius reigned shortly after the events of Jesus’ crucifixion and the subsequent spread of Christianity. The decree’s presence in Nazareth, the hometown of Jesus, further strengthens the connection. It is plausible that Claudius, aware of the Christian claim that Jesus’ body had been resurrected, issued this decree to prevent further disturbances of graves and to quell any potential unrest stemming from such claims.

The Nazareth Decree, therefore, provides indirect archaeological evidence of the impact of Jesus’ resurrection on the Roman authorities and their efforts to suppress the spread of Christianity.

Yohanan—A Crucifixion Victim

In 1968, a significant archaeological discovery was made in Jerusalem: the remains of a crucified man named Yohanan, dating to the first century C.E. Yohanan’s remains were found in an ossuary, a stone box used to store bones after the body had decayed. What made this find particularly important was the presence of a large iron nail still embedded in his heel bone, providing rare physical evidence of Roman crucifixion practices.

The nail had been driven through the heel bone and into a wooden beam, with a piece of olive wood still attached to it. This find confirms several details of the New Testament’s description of crucifixion, particularly the use of nails to affix the victim to the cross. Yohanan’s legs had also been broken, consistent with the Roman practice of crurifragium, which was used to hasten death (John 19:31-32).

The discovery of Yohanan’s remains is significant because it provides tangible evidence of the brutality of Roman crucifixion, a method of execution that was reserved for the most serious criminals and political rebels. It also corroborates the New Testament accounts of Jesus’ crucifixion, particularly the use of nails and the breaking of the legs of those crucified alongside Him.

The Shroud of Turin

While the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin remains a matter of debate, it is worth mentioning in the context of archaeological evidence related to Jesus’ crucifixion. The Shroud is a linen cloth that bears the faint image of a man who appears to have suffered crucifixion. The wounds depicted on the image correspond to the injuries described in the Gospel accounts, including the crown of thorns, the scourging, and the piercing of the side.

Carbon dating tests conducted in 1988 dated the Shroud to the medieval period, leading many to conclude that it was a forgery. However, more recent studies have questioned the accuracy of these tests, suggesting that the samples used may have been contaminated or that the Shroud had undergone repairs that skewed the results. Additionally, other forms of analysis, such as pollen studies and the examination of bloodstains, have supported the Shroud’s authenticity as a first-century burial cloth.

While the Shroud of Turin remains a controversial artifact, it continues to be studied and debated by scholars. If proven authentic, it would represent one of the most significant archaeological discoveries related to the New Testament, providing a direct physical connection to the crucifixion of Jesus.

Archaeological Evidence of Early Christian Worship and Beliefs

The House Church in Capernaum

One of the earliest archaeological sites associated with Christian worship is the house church in Capernaum, believed to be the home of the apostle Peter. Capernaum was a fishing village on the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus conducted much of his ministry. According to the Gospels, Jesus performed miracles and taught in the synagogue of Capernaum, making it an important location in the early Christian movement (Mark 1:21-28; Luke 4:31-37; John 6:59).

Excavations at Capernaum have uncovered a first-century house that was later transformed into a Christian worship space. The house was originally a simple, one-room structure with a courtyard, typical of the homes in the village. However, by the fourth century, the house had been significantly modified, with the addition of plastered walls, a larger courtyard, and inscriptions that indicate its use as a place of Christian worship.

One of the inscriptions found in the house church reads, “Lord Jesus Christ, help your servant,” providing direct evidence of early Christian devotion to Jesus as Lord. The transformation of Peter’s house into a worship space underscores the importance of Capernaum in the early Christian community and provides a tangible link to the ministry of Jesus and his apostles.

The Megiddo Church

Another significant archaeological discovery related to early Christian worship is the Megiddo Church, located in present-day Israel. Discovered in 2005 during the construction of a prison, the Megiddo Church is one of the oldest known Christian worship sites, dating to the third century C.E. The church is notable for its well-preserved mosaic floor, which features an inscription dedicating the church to “the God Jesus Christ.”

The inscription reads: “The God-loving Akeptous has offered the table to God Jesus Christ as a memorial.” This is one of the earliest known references to Jesus as God, predating the Council of Nicaea, where the doctrine of the Trinity was formalized. The discovery of the Megiddo Church provides valuable insight into the beliefs and practices of early Christians, as well as their veneration of Jesus as divine.

The church’s location in Megiddo, a site of great eschatological significance in Christian tradition (Revelation 16:16), adds to its importance. The presence of a Christian community in this region during the third century indicates the spread of Christianity beyond its origins in Judea and Galilee, reflecting the growth and development of the early church.

Conclusion

Archaeology has played a crucial role in confirming the historical accuracy of the New Testament and providing a deeper understanding of the context in which its events occurred. From the confirmation of specific details in Luke’s writings to the corroboration by non-Christian historians, and from evidence of Jesus’ crucifixion to the discovery of early Christian worship sites, archaeological findings have consistently supported the reliability of the New Testament.

These discoveries not only affirm the truth of the biblical narrative but also enrich our understanding of the early Christian movement and the world in which it emerged. As new evidence continues to come to light, the relationship between archaeology and the New Testament remains a vibrant and dynamic field of study, offering ever-greater insights into the historical foundation of the Christian faith.

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