Please note that the dates provided are approximate and represent the best scholarly estimates.

The Historical Context of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE): A Biblical Archaeologist’s Perspective

Overview of Amenhotep II

Amenhotep II, the seventh pharaoh of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty, ruled from 1455 to 1418 BCE. He is often referred to by his Greek name, Amenophis II, with his name translating to “Amun is Satisfied.” Amenhotep II inherited an expansive empire from his father, Thutmose III, and his reign marked a significant period in ancient Egyptian history due to its relative peace and stability.

Political and Military Leadership

Unlike his father, who was known for numerous military campaigns, Amenhotep II conducted fewer military operations. His reign is noted for the effective cessation of hostilities between Egypt and Mitanni, two of the major kingdoms vying for control in the region of Syria. This period of reduced military engagement suggests a shift in the pharaonic policy from expansion to consolidation and maintaining the status quo. His military prowess, however, was still demonstrated in his few but significant campaigns in Syria, which helped to secure Egypt’s borders and assert its influence over its vassal states.

Religious Influence and Administration

Amenhotep II’s rule is also significant from a religious standpoint. The pharaoh’s name, indicating that “Amun is Satisfied,” reflects the strong theocratic element of his reign, where the god Amun held a central place in state ideology. This period saw the continuation of monumental building projects and the enhancement of temple complexes, which underscored the pharaoh’s role as both a political and spiritual leader. The religious undertakings of his reign not only glorified the gods but also legitimized his rule and reinforced the divine right of the pharaohs.

Family and Succession

The pharaoh’s consort was Tiaa, who, unlike her predecessors, was barred from any significant prestige during her husband’s reign. This lack of recognition for Tiaa contrasts with the traditional roles played by queens in earlier dynasties, where they often held substantial influence and public roles. The reasons behind this shift in royal protocol are not entirely clear but may reflect changes in palace dynamics or shifts in the political landscape of the time. It wasn’t until Amenhotep II’s son, Thutmose IV, ascended the throne that Tiaa’s status was elevated, indicating a possible restoration of the queen’s traditional roles.

Integration with Biblical Narratives

While Amenhotep II himself does not directly appear in the biblical texts, the period of his reign offers valuable insights into the geopolitical and cultural contexts that intersect with biblical narratives. For instance, the peace established between Egypt and Mitanni during his reign could have implications for understanding the broader regional stability, which is a backdrop to various movements and events depicted in the Old Testament. The archaeological findings from Amenhotep II’s reign help scholars paint a more detailed picture of the Near East during a time that overlaps with the patriarchal age in biblical chronology.

Significance in Egyptian History

Amenhotep II’s legacy in Egyptian history is marked by a balance between military achievements and diplomatic successes. His approach to foreign policy, favoring peace over continual warfare, may have contributed to a period of stability that allowed Egypt to flourish culturally and economically. This era is pivotal in understanding the transition phases within the Eighteenth Dynasty and sets the stage for the successive rulers who would continue to navigate the complex relationships between the major powers of the ancient Near East.

Early Life and Family of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE)

Birth and Early Years

Amenhotep II was born to Thutmose III and his minor wife, Merytre-Hatshepsut. Unlike his elder brother Amenemhat, who was the son of Thutmose III’s chief wife Satiah and initially the designated heir, Amenhotep II did not start his life poised for the throne. Amenemhat’s premature death, along with that of his mother Satiah between the 24th and 35th years of Thutmose III’s reign, led to significant changes in the royal succession plans. These events precipitated Thutmose III’s marriage to Merytre-Hatshepsut, who bore him several children, including the future Amenhotep II.

Amenhotep II’s upbringing in Memphis, rather than the traditional royal capital of Thebes, marked a deviation from the usual royal upbringing. His role as overseer of wood deliveries to the dockyard of Peru-nūfe in Memphis and his position as Setem, the high priest over Lower Egypt, were indicative of his significant responsibilities even during his youth. His claims of exceptional athletic prowess, such as shooting an arrow through a thick copper target and surpassing two hundred navy members in rowing, although met with skepticism by some historians, underscore his preparation for leadership.

Accession and Coregency

Amenhotep II’s rise to power was formalized on the first day of the fourth month of Akhet, immediately following his father’s death on the thirtieth day of the third month of Peret. The brief overlap suggests a possible two-year and four-month coregency with Thutmose III, a common practice intended to ensure a smooth transition and continuity of governance. This coregency, although not universally accepted among scholars, is supported by various inscriptions and administrative records.

Marriage and Progeny

Upon becoming pharaoh, Amenhotep II married Tiaa, a woman of uncertain parentage, who later bore him multiple children. His most notable offspring was Thutmose IV, his successor. Besides Thutmose IV, Amenhotep II is believed to have fathered several other children, including princes Amenhotep, Webensenu, Amenemopet, Nedjem, and potentially Amenemhat, Khaemwaset, and Aakheperure, along with a possible daughter, Iaret. However, the exact number and identity of his children remain subjects of scholarly debate due to the ambiguous nature of some inscriptions and the common practice of royal names being reused across generations.

Royal Inscriptions and Succession

Several inscriptions enhance our understanding of Amenhotep II’s family dynamics. Papyrus B.M. 10056 and various steles, such as those from his temple at Giza, mention names that could be linked to his sons, though definitive identifications are complicated by damages and defacements on some of these artifacts. For instance, Stele B may belong to his son Webensenu, as suggested by other statues and canopic jars found in Amenhotep II’s tomb. Likewise, the mentions of other sons like Amenemopet and Nedjem, and the ambiguous references to a prince Aakheperure, highlight the challenges of piecing together the family tree of this pharaoh.

These records not only illustrate the complexities of royal succession but also reflect the broader socio-political structure of Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty. They show a period characterized by strategic marriages, significant military and religious roles filled by princes, and the pharaoh’s attempts to stabilize and strengthen the dynasty’s rule over Egypt and its territories. Such dynamics were crucial for maintaining the empire’s integrity and facilitating its prosperity under Amenhotep II’s reign and beyond.

Chronological Examination of Amenhotep II’s Reign (1455-1418 BCE)

Ascension and Chronology

Amenhotep II’s coronation is historically grounded due to several lunar observations recorded during the reign of his father, Thutmose III. These observations have helped narrow down Thutmose’s accession to the throne to either 1504 or 1479 BCE. Following a 54-year reign, Thutmose III’s death marked the beginning of Amenhotep II’s rule. The initial two years and four months of Amenhotep’s reign overlapped with his father’s, establishing a coregency that places his sole accession around either 1452 BCE in the high chronology or 1427 BCE in the low chronology. This coregency is a critical factor in pinpointing the start of his independent rule.

Reign Duration and Documentary Evidence

Amenhotep II’s reign is documented to have lasted at least until his 26th regnal year, as evidenced by a wine jar inscription found in his funerary temple at Thebes. This inscription, which lists the king’s vintner Panehsy, strongly suggests that Amenhotep did not live much beyond this year since such temples were typically stocked near the end of a king’s life. However, there are theories supported by other historical and monumental evidence suggesting that his reign could have extended up to 35 years, the maximum plausible duration.

Despite the clear record of his 26th year, there is a notable absence of documentation for many years between his 9th and 23rd year. This gap is partially bridged by indirect evidence from Papyrus Leningrad 1116A, which is dated to around Amenhotep II’s 19th year based on grain allotment records. This document, while not naming the king explicitly, uses palaeography and terms associated with Amenhotep II’s time, providing a credible link to this period of his reign.

Reevaluation of Longevity and Historical Interpretations

The conventional understanding of Amenhotep II’s age at death is challenged by modern X-ray analyses of his mummy, suggesting he was around 40 years old. This finding conflicts with longer reign theories which would place him at an older age at the time of death. For instance, if his reign lasted 30 years, as posited by Josephus based on Manetho’s records, Amenhotep II would have been approximately 48 years old, assuming he ascended to the throne at age 18. This discrepancy raises questions about the accuracy of historical records or the interpretations of physical evidence.

Theoretical Extensions of Reign

While the year 26 is the highest attested date in Amenhotep II’s reign, the lack of records for a significant period raises the possibility that he could have reigned longer. Inscriptions at Karnak, referencing Heb sed festivals traditionally held in the 30th and 34th years of a reign, suggest he might have reached these milestones. However, the interpretation of these inscriptions as “pillar benedictions” by some scholars, such as Donald B. Redford, casts doubt on their chronological value. If these festivals were celebrated as indicated, it would support a reign of at least 30 years for Amenhotep II, contradicting the shorter reign implied by the archaeological evidence of his age at death.

Implications of Coregency and Methodological Considerations

The coregency with Thutmose III introduces additional complexity to calculating the exact length of Amenhotep II’s reign. If the coregency lasted as suggested, and if Amenhotep II did celebrate a Heb sed festival, his reign could be extended in the historical record beyond what is directly attested. This scenario highlights the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists in reconciling documentary, monumental, and physical evidence to construct a coherent chronology of pharaonic reigns.

In summary, while Amenhotep II’s reign is most conservatively documented to have lasted 26 years, various pieces of evidence—from papyri to temple inscriptions—open the possibility for a longer reign, potentially up to 35 years. Each piece of evidence must be critically evaluated within its archaeological and historical context to build a comprehensive picture of his rule.

Foreign Policy and Military Campaigns of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE)

Early Military Engagements

Amenhotep II’s foreign affairs were characterized by significant military actions that demonstrated both his strategic acumen and his personal valor. His first notable campaign occurred in his third regnal year and was marked by a confrontation with the forces of Qatna while crossing the Orontes River. Despite being attacked, Amenhotep II emerged victorious and secured substantial booty, including the equipment of a Mitanni charioteer. This victory highlighted his prowess and set a tone for his military leadership.

In a dramatic display of power and warning, Amenhotep II executed seven rebel princes at Kadesh and utilized their bodies as a chilling message to deter future rebellions. He hung the bodies of these princes on the prow of his ship, and upon his return to Thebes, all but one were mounted on the city walls. The remaining prince’s body was displayed in Napata, Nubia, serving as a stark warning against insurrection. 

Subsequent Campaigns and Diplomatic Shifts

Amenhotep II’s seventh regnal year was marked by a significant rebellion in Syria, involving the vassal states of Naharin, likely instigated by Mitanni, Egypt’s chief Near Eastern rival at the time. The pharaoh’s response was swift as he dispatched his army to suppress the uprising. The absence of recorded major battles from the victory stele of this campaign suggests that his approach may have involved asserting dominance through presence rather than outright combat, a strategy aimed at securing allegiance rather than decimation.

This subtle approach can be contrasted with the narrative of his last major campaign in his ninth year, which did not extend beyond the Sea of Galilee. The claims of capturing over 100,000 slaves during this campaign, while difficult to verify, illustrate the hyperbolic nature of royal inscriptions meant to glorify the pharaoh’s achievements. Such numbers may have included exaggerations or accounting errors but nonetheless conveyed the message of a successful campaign.

Establishment of Peace and Long-term Strategy

The latter part of Amenhotep II’s reign saw a shift from active military engagement to diplomatic consolidation. After his ninth year, significant peace overtures were made by regional powers, including Babylon, the Hittites, and notably Mitanni. While some records from this period might embellish the extent of foreign subjugation, the recurring theme of tribute and peace talks suggests a strategic shift towards stabilization and maintenance of the empire’s influence over its territories.

This diplomatic pivot is further supported by the evidence of a formal or informal treaty with Mitanni, facilitated by the broader geopolitical landscape, including the rising threat of the Hittites and Assyrians. Such a treaty allowed Mitanni to redirect its focus northward while enabling Egypt to harness the economic and strategic benefits of peace, including enhanced access to Mediterranean trade routes and increased resource extraction from regions like Syria and Palestine.

Regional Influence and Legacy

The peace established during the latter years of Amenhotep II’s reign had lasting implications for Egypt’s foreign relations and its positioning within the complex network of ancient Near Eastern politics. This period of reduced military confrontation allowed for a concentration on domestic affairs and economic development, which not only solidified Amenhotep II’s legacy as a ruler who could wield both sword and scepter effectively but also ensured the continuity of prosperity under his successors.

By examining these military and diplomatic efforts, we see a pharaoh who was adept at navigating the challenges of leadership, asserting military might when necessary, but also recognizing the benefits of strategic peace and alliances, aligning with the scriptural wisdom that advises discernment in peace and war (Proverbs 20:18).

Architectural Endeavors of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE)

Overview of Building Projects

Although Amenhotep II’s reign might seem less architecturally dominant compared to his father Thutmose III, especially at the grand site of Karnak, his contributions to Egypt’s religious and civic architecture were nonetheless significant. His approach emphasized enhancing and expanding smaller temples across Egypt, perhaps reflecting a strategic emphasis on strengthening local religious centers to ensure widespread cultural and political cohesion.

Developments in the Delta and Upper Egypt

In the Nile Delta, Amenhotep II continued his father’s projects but shifted some focus towards new constructions. Minmose, previously Thutmose III’s Overseer of Works and noted in an inscription at Tura, spearheaded these efforts. This continuity in administration underscores a stable transition in reigns, ensuring that ongoing projects did not falter. In Upper Egypt, Amenhotep II’s strategy involved small-scale but widespread enhancements to shrines in locations like Medamud, el-Tod, and Armant, which supported the localized worship and integration of the populace into the state’s religious framework.

Contributions to Karnak

Karnak saw less attention during Amenhotep II’s time compared to the massive projects of his predecessors. However, he did commission significant additions such as a commemorative column located in the courtyard between the fourth and fifth pylons. This column celebrated the receipt of tribute from Mitanni, not only as a political victory but also as a testament to the pharaoh’s divine favor and international prestige.

Expansion in Nubia

Amenhotep II’s architectural ambitions extended into Nubia, where his projects were part of a broader strategy to consolidate Egyptian authority and influence. At Qasr Ibrim and Semna, he initiated new constructions and ordered enhancements to the Temple at Kalabsha. His most notable project in Nubia was the completion of a temple at Amada, started by Thutmose III. This temple was dedicated to Horus, though it also prominently featured deities such as Re-Harakhti and Amun-Re. The Amada temple became particularly important due to a stele it housed that detailed Amenhotep II’s third-year military campaign, serving as a crucial historical document.

Theban Necropolis Project

One of Amenhotep II’s more ambitious projects was a mortuary temple in the Theban Necropolis, near the site of what would later become the Ramesseum. Though this temple was ultimately destroyed in ancient times, its initial construction near the cultivation edge showcased the pharaoh’s intent to secure his legacy through monumental architecture that connected his rule with the divine in the afterlife.

Architectural Philosophy and Religious Significance

Amenhotep II’s building projects reflect a pharaoh who was keenly aware of the role of architecture in manifesting state power and religious ideology. Through these constructions, he not only ensured the continuation of his father’s policies but also made his own mark, reinforcing the stability and prosperity of his reign. His works across Egypt and Nubia highlight a ruler who was both a guardian of tradition and an initiator of change, aiming to weave his legacy into the fabric of Egypt’s monumental history.

The Character and Final Years of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE)

Personality Traits and Governance

Amenhotep II’s personality and approach to governance are vividly illustrated in his communications and the policies he enacted throughout his reign. A stela from the later years of his rule provides crucial insights into his character, particularly reflecting his views toward foreigners and his administrative priorities. This stela, which records a personal letter composed by Amenhotep II to Usersatet, the Viceroy of Kush, showcases the pharaoh’s direct involvement in state matters and his assertive communication style.

The letter reveals Amenhotep II’s contemptuous attitude towards non-Egyptians, a stance that is evident in his harsh rhetoric about various foreign groups. For example, he disparages the people from Tekshi (Syria) as worthless and cautions Usersatet against trusting Nubians, highlighting suspicions and prejudices that might have influenced his foreign policy. This attitude is reflected in his strategic and sometimes harsh interactions with surrounding nations, suggesting a leadership style that was both assertive and unyielding.

Military and Diplomatic Approaches

Amenhotep II’s military exploits, as he recounted to Usersatet, also underscore his personal valor and the pride he took in his martial abilities. His references to shared military campaigns in Syria with Usersatet emphasize a reign marked by aggressive military campaigns aimed at consolidating Egyptian power and prestige. However, his advisory to Usersatet not to trust Nubians and to be wary of their potential for deceit or witchcraft reveals a layered approach to governance that combined direct military action with caution in diplomatic relations.

Views on Women and Royal Authority

The pharaoh’s views on the role of women in Egyptian society, particularly in positions of power, were notably conservative. Amenhotep II’s reluctance to record the names of his queens, coupled with his participation in the erasure of Queen Hatshepsut’s monuments during his father’s co-regency, indicates a deliberate effort to minimize the political and ceremonial roles of women within the royal and religious spheres. This action might have been motivated by a concern to prevent the rise of another powerful female ruler like Hatshepsut, reflecting a broader apprehension about female authority that could have shaped his policies and his court’s dynamics.

Religious Integration

Despite his conservative stance on certain issues, Amenhotep II was also notable for his incorporation of foreign deities into the Egyptian pantheon. Deities such as Resheph, Hauron, Baal, Astarte, Qetesh, and others were integrated during his reign, suggesting a complex approach to religion that recognized the benefits of embracing a diverse array of cultic practices. This inclusivity towards foreign gods could be seen as a pragmatic strategy to assimilate and control conquered peoples by recognizing and incorporating their religious beliefs, thus fostering loyalty and stability within the empire.

Final Years and Legacy

In the final years of his reign, as reflected by the directive to engrave his letter on a stela in Nubia, Amenhotep II remained actively engaged in the affairs of state, ensuring that his policies and orders were clearly communicated and remembered. This stela, once located at the Second Cataract and now housed in Boston, stands as a testament to his enduring concern with maintaining a strong and centralized authority, as well as his keen awareness of the importance of propaganda and public memory in consolidating his legacy.

Amenhotep II’s reign, characterized by military prowess, stringent governance, and a complex approach to religious and cultural integration, illustrates a pharaoh deeply engaged with the challenges of his time, striving to secure Egypt’s prosperity and stability through a blend of assertiveness, caution, and strategic inclusivity.

The Final Resting Place and Mummy of Amenhotep II (1455-1418 BCE)

Burial in the Valley of the Kings

Amenhotep II was laid to rest in tomb KV35 in the Valley of the Kings, a site renowned for its royal burials during Egypt’s New Kingdom period. His tomb, discovered in March 1898 by Victor Loret, remains a significant archaeological find not only because of its royal occupant but also due to the mummy cache it later housed. This cache included several other New Kingdom pharaohs such as Thutmose IV, Seti II, Ramesses III, Ramesses IV, and Ramesses VI. These pharaohs were reinterred in Amenhotep II’s tomb by the 21st Dynasty High Priest of Amun, Pinedjem II, during the reign of Siamun. This reburial was part of an effort to protect these royal mummies from the rampant tomb robbery that plagued the region during times of political instability.

Discovery and Examination of the Mummy

The mummy of Amenhotep II presents an invaluable resource for understanding the physical attributes, health, and burial practices of New Kingdom royalty. It was first examined in detail in January 1902 by a team that included notable figures such as Gaston Maspero and Howard Carter, with the examination led by the Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith in 1907. During this examination, remnants of linen still adhering to the face were removed, providing a clearer view of the pharaoh’s features, which bore a strong resemblance to his son, Thutmose IV.

Physical Description and Preservation

Amenhotep II’s body measured 1.67 meters (approximately 5.5 feet) in height. His mummy retained wavy brown hair that was interspersed with white, indicating aging. The positioning of his arms, crossed low over the chest with clenched hands, is typical of New Kingdom royal mummies but noted particularly for the tight clench of the right hand. The skin of the mummy showed small tubercles which, as noted by Smith, could not definitively be identified as either a result of the embalming process or a skin disease he might have had during life. Impressions of jewelry preserved in resin on the body provide evidence of the regal adornments that once accompanied the king in his tomb, including several rows of a beaded collar on his upper back and a diamond-shaped geometric pattern on the back of his hips.

Cause of Death and Age

The exact cause of death for Amenhotep II remains unknown. Estimates of his age at death, based on the examination of his worn teeth and the presence of grey hairs, ranged from forty to fifty years. These estimates correlate with historical records that suggest a reign of approximately 26 years, assuming he ascended to the throne around the age of 18.

The Pharaohs’ Golden Parade

In a recent historic event in April 2021, Amenhotep II’s mummy was relocated from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization. This move was part of the Pharaohs’ Golden Parade, which transferred the remains of 17 other kings and 4 queens. This event not only highlighted Egypt’s rich historical heritage but also showcased the ongoing commitment to preserving and honoring the memory of its ancient rulers.

Legacy and Preservation

The care taken in the preservation, study, and recent relocation of Amenhotep II’s mummy underscores the continuing reverence for Egypt’s pharaonic past and provides a wealth of information for both scholars and the public on the life and times of one of Egypt’s notable rulers. Through these efforts, Amenhotep II’s legacy as a ruler of Egypt continues to be appreciated and studied, offering insights into the sophisticated burial practices and the anatomical knowledge of ancient Egyptian embalmers.

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