The Early Stages of the Greek Language: Pre-Homeric Greek (up to 1000 BCE)

The evolution of the Greek language prior to the Homeric era, which dates up to approximately 1000 BCE, is a period shrouded in mystery due to the sparse archaeological evidence and written records. This phase in the development of Greek, often referred to as Pre-Homeric or Proto-Greek, forms the foundation upon which the classical language of the Bible’s New Testament was later built.

Proto-Greek and Its Origins

Proto-Greek is considered the last common ancestor of all later Greek dialects before they began to diverge significantly from each other. This ancestral language is not directly attested by any written sources but is hypothesized based on the comparative study of Greek dialects and their features. It is generally believed that Proto-Greek speakers migrated to the Greek peninsula around 2000 BCE, where they eventually settled, and their language began to evolve in unique ways.

One of the critical linguistic features of Proto-Greek includes its phonetic characteristics. For instance, it preserved the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) aspirates, which later Greek dialects, including Ionic and Attic, transformed into fricatives (φ, θ, χ). This phonological shift is significant as it marks the evolution from a more ancient linguistic structure to one that characterizes classical Greek, the language that was used centuries later to pen the New Testament.

Linguistic Developments in the Pre-Homeric Period

During the Pre-Homeric period, Greek underwent several transformations that would set the stage for the language used in epic poetry and, much later, in the biblical texts. One of the key developments was the use of the Mycenaean script known as Linear B, which provides our earliest evidence of written Greek. Mycenaean Greek, recorded on clay tablets dating from 1450 to 1200 BCE, demonstrates significant advances in the use of grammar and vocabulary that are foundational for later Greek.

For example, the tablets include references to deities and religious practices, indicating a continuity of cultural and religious ideas that would pervade Greek thought and eventually influence biblical concepts. In Mycenaean Greek, one can already see a predilection for inflection, a trait that becomes a defining characteristic of the language of the New Testament. Inflection affects how verbs conjugate and nouns decline, which is crucial for understanding syntactic and semantic roles within sentences.

Proto-Greek Influence on Biblical Greek

While Proto-Greek itself does not appear in the Biblical texts, its evolutionary impact is profound. The linguistic structures that began in the Proto-Greek period provided the framework upon which Koine Greek was built. Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament, was a direct descendant of the dialects spoken in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, which had evolved from earlier forms of Greek.

The continuity from Proto-Greek to Koine Greek is important for understanding certain grammatical peculiarities found in the New Testament. For example, the Greek verb system, with its aspectual distinctions (present, aorist, perfect), reflects linguistic choices that stem from ancient Proto-Greek. The development of these aspects, particularly the aorist tense, which is used frequently in the New Testament to denote simple past actions without reference to the action’s duration, showcases a linguistic evolution that began in the Pre-Homeric period.

Moreover, the development of the article, which is extensively used in Koine Greek for specificity and definiteness, can be traced back to nominal forms in Proto-Greek. The Greek article (“ho,” “hē,” “to”) helps clarify noun phrases and is essential for accurate biblical interpretation, such as in John 1:1 where “ho logos” (the Word) specifies the subject distinctly from “theos” (God).

The Role of Pre-Homeric Greek in Biblical Interpretation

For pastors and serious students of the Bible, understanding the historical development of the Greek language can deepen one’s appreciation of the New Testament’s text. Knowing that the language has evolved from a complex history helps in interpreting the text’s nuances. For instance, the evolution of Greek provides insights into why certain words in the New Testament carry specific connotations and implications, essential for theological reflections and doctrinal teachings.

The study of Pre-Homeric Greek, although challenging due to the limited archaeological and literary data, is vital for grasping the full historical and linguistic context of the New Testament Greek. This understanding not only enhances biblical interpretation but also enriches the spiritual and cultural appreciation of the scripture.

The Classical Era of Greek (1000 BCE-330 BCE)

The Classical Era of the Greek language spans from about 1000 BCE to 330 BCE, a period marked by significant linguistic development and the crystallization of the dialects that shaped Classical Greek literature and philosophy. This era is crucial for understanding the backdrop against which the New Testament was later written in Koine Greek.

Emergence and Standardization of Dialects

During the early part of this era, the Greek language diversified into several regional dialects, most notably Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Attic. Each of these dialects contributed unique elements to what would become the standardized Classical Greek. Attic Greek, in particular, became predominant by the end of the Classical Era due to its association with the city of Athens, the center of Greek philosophy, drama, and democracy.

Attic Greek’s prominence is exemplified in the works of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle and playwrights such as Sophocles and Euripides. The linguistic features of Attic, including its vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical forms, heavily influenced the later development of Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world and the New Testament.

Influence on Biblical Greek

The transition from Classical to Koine Greek, which occurred after the conquests of Alexander the Great around 330 BCE, was largely a simplification and standardization process where the complex grammatical forms of Classical Greek were made more uniform and accessible to the broader population of the Hellenistic realms. However, many sophisticated elements of Classical Greek persisted into Koine, influencing the linguistic style of the New Testament writers.

For example, the New Testament’s use of conditional sentences, which often employ a mix of indicative and subjunctive moods, reflects a grammatical structure that is deeply rooted in Classical Greek. This is evident in passages such as Romans 5:9, “Much more then, being now justified by his blood, we shall be saved from wrath through him.” Here, the conditional “if… then…” structure (εἰ… τότε…) shows a sophisticated understanding of Greek that links back to classical rhetoric and syntax.

Lexical and Literary Contributions

Classical Greek literature also contributed significantly to the vocabulary and idiomatic expressions found in the New Testament. The rich literary heritage of the Classical Era provided a lexicon from which New Testament writers could draw nuanced meanings and allusions. For instance, the concept of “logos” (λόγος), which John uses in John 1:1 “In the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God, and the Word was God,” has roots in both the philosophical and rhetorical traditions of Classical Athens.

Furthermore, the use of theophoric compounds and honorific titles that appear in the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) and the New Testament reflect a continuation of linguistic practices that were popularized during the Classical Era. Names and titles such as Theophilus (Θεόφιλος), meaning “friend of God,” used in Luke 1:3, demonstrate the blend of religious language with Greek cultural expressions.

Educational and Rhetorical Influence

The educational systems of Classical Greece, which emphasized rhetoric, logic, and grammar, laid the foundation for the education of many of the New Testament figures. This education is reflected in the complex sentence structures and rhetorical techniques used throughout the New Testament, which echo the traditions of Classical oratory and exegesis.

For pastors and serious Bible students, recognizing these influences is essential for interpreting the New Testament texts accurately. Understanding the historical and linguistic evolution from Classical to Koine Greek not only provides deeper insight into the original meaning of the texts but also enriches the theological and doctrinal interpretations based on those texts.

In studying the Classical Era of Greek, one gains an appreciation for the profound continuity and innovation that characterize the history of the Greek language, providing essential context for the study of New Testament Greek. This era’s contributions to language, literature, and education are indispensable for a holistic understanding of the scriptures in their original linguistic and historical context.

Introduction to Koine Greek (330 BCE-330 CE)

Koine Greek, emerging around 330 BCE following the conquests of Alexander the Great, marks a pivotal shift in the history of the Greek language. This era witnessed the transformation of Greek from the classical dialects to a common language (Koine) that spread across the Hellenistic world. This linguistic evolution significantly impacts the study of the New Testament, as Koine Greek was the language in which the New Testament scriptures were composed.

Emergence of Koine Greek

Koine Greek arose from the need to have a common language that could unify the vast and culturally diverse regions under Hellenistic rule. As Alexander’s empire stretched from Egypt to the fringes of India, a simplified form of Greek, primarily based on the Attic and Ionic dialects, became the lingua franca. This version of Greek was more than a pidgin or creole; it was a fully functional language used in administration, literature, commerce, and daily communication across the empire.

Characteristics of Koine Greek

Koine Greek simplified many of the complex grammatical structures of Classical Greek, making it more accessible to the general population. This included the reduction in the use of the optative mood and a more standardized use of the article. The phonology of Koine also began to show changes, such as the monophthongization of diphthongs and a shift towards a stress accent rather than a pitch accent.

The syntactic structure of Koine Greek allowed for a flexibility and clarity that made it ideal for the New Testament’s purposes. For instance, the extensive use of the genitive case provided nuanced meanings in scriptural texts. Paul’s epistles frequently leverage this, as seen in Ephesians 2:8, “For by grace you have been saved through faith.” The phrase “through faith” (διὰ πίστεως) uses the genitive to denote means or agency, a nuance directly traceable to Koine linguistic structures.

Koine Greek in the New Testament

The New Testament authors wrote in Koine Greek to reach a broad audience across geographical and cultural boundaries. This choice reflects not only practical considerations but also theological ones, as the gospel was intended to be a universal message. Koine Greek’s relatively straightforward grammar and vocabulary facilitated the spread of Christianity by making the scriptures more understandable to a non-elite audience.

Moreover, the semantic range of Koine Greek words often carries deep theological significance. For example, the word “logos” (λόγος) in John 1:1, which in classical philosophy could mean “reason” or “discourse,” is used to describe Jesus as the Word (Logos) who was with God and was God, embodying divine reason and communication.

Lexicographical and Semantic Studies of Koine

The study of Koine Greek is enriched by lexicographical works that examine how common Greek words were used differently in biblical texts. Words like “agape” (ἀγάπη, love), which in classical Greek could denote general affection, are imbued with a more profound, sacrificial quality in the New Testament. Understanding these nuances is critical for interpreting passages like 1 John 4:8, “Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love (ἀγάπη).”

Impact on Biblical Interpretation

For pastors, theologians, and serious Bible students, the study of Koine Greek is indispensable for interpreting the New Testament. It allows for an appreciation of the subtle linguistic shifts that convey doctrinal truths. The shift from Classical to Koine Greek, while simplified in form, is complex in its capacity to convey the rich theological concepts foundational to Christian doctrine.

The adaptation of Koine Greek in the biblical context shows not only linguistic evolution but also the providential use of language to reach across cultures and epochs. It demonstrates how a lingua franca, once used for empire-building, became the medium for spreading the Christian gospel, thus illustrating the divine use of human language to communicate eternal truths.

The Role of Koine Greek and the Greek Septuagint

Koine Greek, as the linguistic bridge of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, played a pivotal role in the dissemination of both Jewish and early Christian texts. Central to this was the Septuagint—the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which not only influenced the linguistic framework of early Christianity but also served as a crucial scriptural reference in the New Testament.

Koine Greek: The Universal Language of the Time

By the 3rd century BCE, Koine Greek had become the lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, largely due to the administrative and cultural unification under Alexander the Great and his successors. Its accessibility and widespread use made it the ideal language for the Septuagint, a translation initially prompted by the Jewish community in Egypt who had begun to speak Koine Greek rather than Hebrew.

Translation and Impact of the Septuagint

Initially, the Septuagint (LXX) was viewed by the Jews as inspired by God, equal to the Hebrew Scriptures. However, in the first century C.E., the Christians adopted the Septuagint in their churches. It was used by the Christians in their evangelism to make disciples and to debate the Jews on Jesus being the long-awaited Messiah. Soon, the Jews began to look at the Septuagint with suspicion. This resulted in the Jews of the second century C.E. abandoning the Septuagint and returning to the Hebrew Scriptures. This has proved to be beneficial for the textual scholar and translator. In the second century C.E., other Greek translations of the Septuagint were produced. We have, for example, LXX^Aq Aquila, LXX^Sym Symmachus, and LXX^Th Theodotion. The consonantal text of the Hebrew Scriptures became the standard text between the first and second centuries C.E. However, textual variants still continued until the Masoretes and the Masoretic text. However, scribes taking liberties by altering the text was no longer the case, as was true of the previous period of the Sopherim. The scribes who copied the Hebrew Scriptures from the time of Ezra down to the time of Jesus were called Sopherim, i.e., scribes.

The Septuagint, often abbreviated as LXX, was primarily translated in Alexandria and is considered the first major effort to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This translation was vital for Hellenistic Jews, enabling them to understand their religious texts in a language they spoke daily. The influence of the Septuagint extended beyond just the Jewish diaspora; it became a significant source for early Christians, who often cited it in their writings and evangelistic efforts.

For instance, when the Apostle Paul cites Isaiah 28:16 in Romans 9:33 (“Behold, I am laying in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense; and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame.”), he uses the Septuagint’s rendering of the passage, which reflects its theological interpretation and wording. Such references underscore the Septuagint’s role in shaping the theological and linguistic landscape of the New Testament.

Linguistic Features of Koine Greek in the Septuagint

The translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek was not merely a literal word-for-word translation; it involved interpreting and sometimes expanding the texts to be comprehensible and meaningful to a Greek-speaking audience. This process often entailed the introduction of new theological nuances not present in the original Hebrew. For example, the Hebrew concept of “chesed” (steadfast love) was translated into Greek as “eleos” (mercy), slightly shifting the theological emphasis.

Moreover, the Septuagint’s use of specific Greek terms influenced the theological language of the New Testament. Terms like “logos” (word), “kyrios” (lord), and “soteria” (salvation) carry with them layers of meaning developed in the Septuagint and are foundational to the vocabulary of the New Testament.

Koine Greek’s Contribution to Christian Theology

Koine Greek contributed significantly to Christian theology through its precise vocabulary and syntax, which allowed for the expression of complex theological ideas that were accessible to a broad audience. The Greek language, with its rich vocabulary for action and state (verbs and participles), allowed New Testament writers to express nuanced theological concepts, such as justification, sanctification, and redemption, with clarity and depth.

For example, the nuanced use of verb tenses in Koine Greek, such as the aorist and perfect, provided a means to express the completed actions of Christ’s atonement and the ongoing effects of salvation in believers’ lives. Passages like Ephesians 2:8 (“For by grace you have been saved through faith…”) utilize the perfect tense (ἐστε σεσῳσμένοι, you have been saved) to denote both the completed action and its enduring impact on believers.

Educational and Exegetical Implications

For pastors and Bible scholars, understanding the role of Koine Greek and the Septuagint is essential for accurate biblical interpretation. This comprehension aids in discerning how early Christians understood the Old Testament and its prophecies concerning Christ. Additionally, it helps clarify how New Testament authors utilized the linguistic and theological groundwork laid by the Septuagint to communicate the gospel effectively to both Jewish and Gentile audiences.

Studying the interplay between Koine Greek and the Hebrew scriptures through the lens of the Septuagint provides a deeper understanding of the scriptural continuity and theological developments that are central to Christian doctrine. This study enriches the exegetical process, offering a more comprehensive grasp of the biblical message as it was conveyed to the early church and as it has been preserved for contemporary believers.

The Role of Koine Greek in Early Christianity

Koine Greek not only served as the linguistic foundation of the New Testament but also as a vital tool in the spread and development of early Christianity. Understanding the role of Koine Greek in this formative period provides crucial insights into how the Gospel was communicated across diverse cultures and societies.

Koine Greek as the Lingua Franca

Following Alexander the Great’s conquests, Koine Greek emerged as the common language across the Eastern Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Egypt, and beyond. This widespread use of Greek facilitated the dissemination of Christian doctrines and texts, making them accessible to a broad audience beyond the Jewish diaspora.

Scriptural Transmission and Koine Greek

The New Testament was penned in Koine Greek, a choice that significantly influenced Christian theology and evangelism. This language choice ensured that the teachings of Jesus and his apostles could be easily understood by many within the Roman Empire. Key passages such as John 3:16, “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life,” were written in Koine to reach as wide an audience as possible.

Koine Greek in Liturgical and Theological Contexts

Koine Greek’s role extended beyond mere communication; it shaped the theological concepts and terms that are fundamental to Christian doctrine. Terms such as “agape” (ἀγάπη, love), “ekklesia” (ἐκκλησία, congregation, church), and “charis” (χάρις, grace) not only conveyed Christian teachings but also imbued them with specific cultural and philosophical connotations understood by contemporary audiences.

For example, the term “ekklesia” was used in Greek-speaking areas to denote a public assembly or gathering, which was then adopted by early Christians to define their own gatherings, reflecting both a continuity and a redefinition of existing social structures.

Theological Nuances Conveyed Through Koine Greek

The precision of Koine Greek allowed for the expression of subtle theological nuances, crucial for doctrines such as the nature of Christ and the Trinity. The use of precise terms like “ousia” (οὐσία, essence) and “hypostasis” (ὑπόστασις, substance, or person) in theological debates helped clarify the distinctions and relationships within the Trinity, as later formalized in the Nicene Creed.

Furthermore, the Greek verb system, particularly the use of tenses, provided nuanced ways to describe the actions and experiences of Jesus Christ. The perfect tense is used to describe actions with ongoing relevance, such as in Hebrews 10:12, “But this man, after he had offered one sacrifice for sins forever, sat down on the right hand of God.” Here, the perfect tense (προσενέγκας) emphasizes the completed action of Christ’s sacrifice and its enduring effect for believers.

Exegetical Significance of Koine Greek

For early Christian exegetes and preachers, Koine Greek was not merely a vehicle for transmitting information but a tool for deep theological reflection and debate. Understanding the nuances of Koine Greek enables modern scholars and pastors to engage more deeply with the New Testament texts, appreciating the linguistic and cultural layers that shape its message.

For instance, the interpretation of key doctrinal terms and the application of Christ’s teachings were often debated within the framework of Greek philosophical concepts, which were familiar to the letter’s recipients. This cultural and linguistic engagement helped early Christians articulate their faith in ways that were intellectually and rhetorically persuasive to their contemporaries.

Educational Implications for Pastors and Theologians

For today’s pastors and theologians, proficiency in Koine Greek is essential for accessing the New Testament in its original form. It offers insights into the text that are often obscured or lost in translation, allowing for a more accurate and profound understanding of the scripture.

Studying Koine Greek equips church leaders to interpret biblical texts with greater accuracy and to convey the depth of Christian theology in a manner that is both faithful to the ancient texts and relevant to contemporary believers. This linguistic competence not only enhances personal faith but also enriches the communal and doctrinal life of the church, fostering a deeper connection with the historical roots of Christian faith.

Greek and First Century Evangelism

The early Christians were renowned for their role as global educators and diligent publishers of the “word of God.” Before His ascension, Jesus empowered His followers, saying, “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you will be my witnesses in both Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8). True to Jesus’ prophecy, the initial group of 120 disciples was filled with the Holy Spirit on Pentecost 33 C.E. This event marked the beginning of a vigorous church expansion. That same day, Peter initiated a new educational endeavor, delivering a compelling message that led to the conversion of about 3,000 people, significantly boosting the nascent Christian congregation (Acts 2:14-42).

These early disciples embarked on a groundbreaking teaching mission, the scope of which eventually reached every known corner of the world at the time (Colossians 1:23). Motivated by a unique historical zeal, they traveled tirelessly from one house to another, from city to city, and from country to country, proclaiming the “good news of good things” (Romans 10:15). Their message centered on Christ’s sacrificial death, the hope of resurrection, and the promise of God’s Kingdom (1 Corinthians 15:1-3, 20-22, 50; James 2:5).

This unprecedented missionary effort presented a vivid demonstration of faith, as many came to recognize Jehovah as their Sovereign Lord through Jesus’ sacrifice (Hebrews 11:1; Acts 4:24; 1 Timothy 1:14-17). The Christian ministers, both men and women, were not only spiritually enlightened but also literate and well-informed on global events. Accustomed to travel, they overcame all obstacles like a swarm of locusts, unstoppable in their mission to spread the gospel (Acts 2:7-11; Joel 2:7-11, 25).

By the first century C.E., these early Christians had become adept at using available Biblical scrolls to further their teachings (Philippians 2:15, 16; 2 Timothy 4:13). Notable figures such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were divinely inspired to document “the good news about Jesus Christ” (Mark 1:1; Matthew 1:1). Apostles like Peter, Paul, John, James, and Jude contributed through inspired letters, enhancing the spiritual nourishment of the growing Christian communities (2 Peter 3:15, 16). These writings were meticulously copied and shared across the congregations, fostering doctrinal unity and spiritual growth (Colossians 4:16).

Furthermore, the central Spirit-directed leadership of the apostles and elders in Jerusalem directed doctrinal decisions and disseminated instructional letters to congregations far and wide, operating an early form of mail service to facilitate communication (Acts 5:29-32; 15:2, 6, 22-29; 16:4).

To enhance the distribution and usability of the Scriptures, the early Christians innovated by adopting the codex format over traditional scrolls. The codex, similar to today’s books, allowed for easier reference and the ability to compile canonical texts into a single volume. This format was not only practical but also revolutionary, possibly originating with the Christians themselves. While the codex was gradually embraced by non-Christian writers, Christian documents from the second and third centuries predominantly utilized this format, demonstrating the early Christians’ pioneering role in manuscript development.

Greek and the Transmission of the New Testament

Greek and the Transmission of the New Testament

The Greek language played a pivotal role in the transmission of the New Testament, influencing not only the spread of Christian texts but also the theological nuances contained within them. Understanding this relationship is crucial for pastors, scholars, and serious Bible students who seek deeper insights into the scriptural texts.

Greek as the Language of the New Testament

Koine Greek, the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, was the medium through which the New Testament was written and initially disseminated. This choice was strategic, as Greek was widely understood across the Roman Empire, transcending regional languages and dialects. This universality allowed the early Christian message to reach a broad audience, facilitating the rapid spread of Christianity.

Manuscript Tradition and Textual Transmission

The New Testament’s transmission through manuscripts was predominantly in Greek. Early manuscripts such as P52 (100-150 C.E.), one of the oldest known fragments of the New Testament, exemplify the use of Greek in preserving the Christian scriptures. These manuscripts were copied and recopied by scribes over centuries, each generation transmitting the sacred texts to the next.

The process of copying manuscripts was prone to variations and errors, which later textual critics sought to reconcile by comparing multiple copies. This critical work was essential for establishing a more accurate text, as seen in the efforts of scholars like Erasmus who compiled the Textus Receptus in the 16th century, largely based on available Greek manuscripts of the New Testament.

The Role of Greek in Scriptural Interpretation

The precision and nuances of Koine Greek played a significant role in theological debates and the development of Christian doctrine. For example, the distinction in Greek between terms like “sarx” (flesh) and “soma” (body) has implications for understanding New Testament anthropology and soteriology. Passages like Romans 7:18, “For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing,” use “sarx” to denote human nature’s moral weakness, a nuance that is critical for correct theological interpretation.

Greek, the Septuagint, and the New Testament

The Greek Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, also influenced the language and content of the New Testament. New Testament writers often quoted the Septuagint, and its language shaped the vocabulary and thought patterns of the New Testament. For instance, the use of “kyrios” (Lord) in the Septuagint to translate the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) is mirrored in the New Testament, where “kyrios” becomes a title for Jesus, affirming His divine status and fulfilling Old Testament prophecies.

Greek Manuscripts and Early Christian Communities

Greek manuscripts of the New Testament not only served as religious texts but also as community-building tools within early Christian groups. These texts were read aloud, memorized, and discussed within communities, which helped in shaping communal identity and belief. The epistles, written in Greek, addressed specific communities, dealing with local issues, and guiding early Christians in faith and practice. For example, 1 Corinthians, written by Paul in Greek around 55 C.E. from Ephesus, addressed issues concerning church unity, morality, and doctrinal clarity.

Greek Texts and the Historical-Grammatical Method

In conservative biblical scholarship, the Historical-Grammatical method is employed to analyze the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. This method focuses on understanding the literal meaning of the text as it was originally intended by the authors, taking into account the grammatical constructions and the historical context at the time of writing. Tools such as lexical analysis and grammatical parsing are used to carefully study the Greek texts, aiming to discern the straightforward meanings and intentions of the New Testament writings.

The thorough knowledge of Greek, when applied through this method, leads to a precise interpretation of the New Testament, highlighting its message, historical context, and theological teachings. For pastors and serious Bible students, mastering this approach is crucial for accurately preaching, teaching, and applying the Christian faith, ensuring a faithful transmission of biblical truths based on a solid understanding of the scriptural texts.

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