The process by which the Bible crossed linguistic and cultural frontiers required unwavering conviction, disciplined scholarship, and the firm belief that every faithful community should possess Scripture in its native tongue. This conviction guided diligent efforts from the earliest centuries, when Christianity first emerged in territories influenced by Greek and Aramaic traditions, to regions far beyond, where other languages prevailed. As Isaiah 40:8 (UASV) states, “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.” From the lands where apostolic teaching first took root, this certainty ensured that the Word of Jehovah would remain accessible across continents and ages.
For believers situated outside the original linguistic communities of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, translators and scribes labored to produce accurate and understandable renderings. These enterprises did not represent idle endeavors or casual attempts. Instead, each step stemmed from a profound recognition of divine inspiration and from adherence to the directive found in 2 Timothy 3:16 (UASV), “All scripture is inspired by God and beneficial for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness.” This directive propelled missionary translators and teachers who confronted unfamiliar alphabets, unique phonetic systems, and previously unrecorded sounds.
The Armenian version of the Scriptures emerged within this historical context. Armenia holds the distinction of being the first kingdom to declare Christianity as its official religion. Early in the fourth century C.E., Gregory the Illuminator, whose life spanned approximately 257–331 C.E., embarked on a campaign to bring Christian teaching to his homeland. He possessed royal lineage and received Christian training in Caesarea of Cappadocia before returning to Armenia. He preached the gospel effectively, and King Tiridates I accepted the faith wholeheartedly. The king’s royal edict established Christianity as the religion of Armenia, causing widespread acceptance of baptism. This event forever altered the spiritual landscape of Armenia, shaping the direction of Armenian spiritual life and prompting the community to seek a permanent, accurate record of the inspired writings.
Icon of Eusebius of Caesarea as a Saint in Medieval Armenian Manuscript from Isfahan, Persia
From the earliest days of Armenian Christianity, a linguistic challenge confronted believers. Before the Armenian alphabet existed, books and official documents were available exclusively in Greek or Syriac. Without a suitable Armenian script, the faithful resorted to oral interpretation. Translators rendered Greek and Syriac biblical texts orally into Armenian during worship and teaching sessions. The Armenian people received Christian literature, doctrinal works, and scriptural passages through these interpretive performances. Over time, the community desired stable written copies of Scripture, rather than relying solely on memorization and oral explanation.
The church leaders took decisive action. A bishop named Daniel attempted to construct an Armenian alphabet. His efforts, however, did not produce a system appropriate for representing Armenian phonology. The language demanded symbols that would accurately reflect its distinct sounds, a requirement that exceeded what a simple borrowing from the Aramaic alphabet could achieve. The Armenian believers required a precise writing system capable of reproducing the complexity of their spoken words.
A profound cultural and literary transformation unfolded in the early fifth century C.E., under the leadership of two figures renowned for their learning and devotion. Sahak (ca. 350–439 C.E.), a catholicos of Armenia and descendant of Gregory the Illuminator, guided the church with wisdom and learning. He worked alongside Mesrop (also known as Mesrob or Mashtotz, ca. 361–439 C.E.), who had abandoned a military career in favor of monastic service, missionary endeavors, and scholarly pursuits. Together, Sahak and Mesrop represented the driving force behind the birth of Armenian Christian literature.
Around 406 C.E., Mesrop, working in cooperation with a Greek hermit and calligrapher named Rufanos of Samosata, succeeded in devising an Armenian alphabet of thirty-six letters. Twenty letters derived directly from Greek forms, another twelve emerged through modification and adaptation in line with Greek principles, and four came from Syriac to cover distinct Armenian sounds not present in Greek. This original Armenian alphabet remains a monumental linguistic achievement. It assured that the Armenian language would have a fixed scriptural standard, providing stable foundations for the eventual translation of Scripture.
With a dependable writing system in hand, Mesrop assembled a group of scholars dedicated to translation and textual study. These scholars embarked on journeys to Edessa, Constantinople, and as far as Rome to gather manuscripts of the Scriptures and the works of ecclesiastical and secular authors. This determined search ensured that Armenian translators gained access to reliable source texts. Returning with manuscripts and knowledge acquired abroad, the translators initiated a program of literary activity that fortified Armenian culture and intellectual life.
The first biblical book translated into Armenian was the Book of Proverbs. Completed successfully, it paved the way for the translation of the New Testament and subsequently the entire Old Testament. By approximately 410–414 C.E., the Armenian Bible had taken shape. Sahak and Mesrop, joined by qualified collaborators, produced a translation recognized for careful adherence to the original text, clarity of phrasing, and linguistic purity. The Armenian believers could now read Scripture in a writing system fashioned for their own language, encountering the inspired Word with direct and immediate understanding.
The Armenian version eventually gained a distinguished position. Copyists, working under rigorous conditions, preserved and multiplied manuscripts. More Armenian biblical manuscripts remain extant than those of any other ancient version except for the Latin Vulgate. The earliest dated manuscript of the Armenian Gospels originates from 887 C.E. By this date, the Armenian scribal tradition had reached a high level of skill, ensuring faithful transmission of the textual tradition. This wealth of surviving manuscripts allows modern scholars to confirm the general accuracy and fidelity of the Armenian version, as textual variants and scribal practices are studied and compared.
The Armenian version reflected strong connections to Greek sources. The translators, shaped by interactions with Hellenistic Christianity, utilized Greek manuscripts extensively. They absorbed Greek thought and textual traditions. The Armenian version reflects substantial agreement with Greek textual witnesses, confirming that those who produced it engaged directly with Greek original texts. This reliance on Greek sources aligns well with the historical narrative that Armenian scholars traveled to centers of learning in the Greek-speaking world. They returned equipped with authoritative manuscripts and insights.
At the same time, the Armenian version shows traces of influence from Syriac Christianity. Armenian believers maintained cultural and religious ties with Syriac-speaking regions. Syriac provided an important channel through which Christian thought, liturgical practices, and doctrinal explanations flowed into Armenia before the development of the Armenian alphabet. The incorporation into the Armenian canon of certain texts mirrored early Syriac traditions, including an apocryphal Third Epistle to the Corinthians. Such inclusions indicate that the Armenian version did not merely mirror Greek Christianity. It also integrated elements originating from Syriac sources, testifying to early Armenian cultural and spiritual connections with Eastern Christian communities.
The Armenian version went beyond the canonical books recognized today. The Old Testament text included writings regarded in later centuries as apocryphal. The Armenian Old Testament included the History of Joseph and Asenath and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. The Armenian New Testament included an Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul and a Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians. Armenian scribes copied these texts faithfully, leaving subsequent generations with rich documentary evidence of how early Armenian believers viewed the scriptural corpus.
Armenian manuscripts preserved numerous uncanonical Old Testament writings. Titles included The Book of Adam, The History of Moses, The Deaths of the Prophets, Concerning King Solomon, A Short History of the Prophet Elias, Concerning the Prophet Jeremiah, The Vision of Enoch the Just, and The Third Book of Esdras. The latter corresponds to chapters 3–14 of what is known in some traditions as Second Esdras, and it includes the lost verses 36 to 105 of chapter 7. The survival of these additional texts in Armenian underscores the comprehensive scope of translation activity undertaken by Armenian scholars. Instead of restricting themselves narrowly, they included extensive writings that existed in manuscripts they gathered.
The Armenian scribes did not leave their work anonymous or silent. Armenian manuscripts frequently contained colophons. These colophons, far from trivial notes, recorded the circumstances of manuscript production, the name of the scribe, the date of completion, and the political or social conditions prevailing at the time. Colophons provided valuable historical records, offering eyewitness testimony of events and conditions that influenced the scribes. These narratives sometimes related the hardships endured, the expenses incurred, or the benefactors who supported the scribal project. They recorded historical events, weather conditions, or theological statements. Through these colophons, readers gained unique insights into the conditions under which the Armenian Scriptures were copied and maintained.
One noteworthy colophon dates to 989 C.E. in an Armenian copy of the Gospels. It attributes the last twelve verses of the Gospel according to Mark (16:9–20) to “the presbyter Ariston.” This attribution represented a specific claim that the extended ending of Mark originated from a disciple of the Lord named Aristion, mentioned by Papias in the early second century C.E. Although direct proof linking Aristion to the composition of Mark’s ending does not exist in Greek manuscripts, the Armenian witness attests to an ancient tradition transmitted through Armenian channels. The existence of about one hundred Armenian manuscripts that conclude Mark at 16:8, omitting verses 9–20, reveals that Armenian scribes were aware of variations in the Gospel endings. They recognized the significance of these matters and documented them clearly. This fact exemplifies the careful approach Armenian scribes took to their work.
The Armenian version stands as a remarkable testament to the unwavering resolution of believers who refused to remain content with second-hand accounts of Scripture. By the fifth century C.E., Armenia had gained a script uniquely suited to its language and had secured a complete version of the Bible. The project of translating Scripture into Armenian did not arise haphazardly. It emerged from deliberate planning and collaboration between church leaders, missionaries, scholars, and scribes. Each participant understood the importance of fidelity to the original text. They did not accept hasty paraphrases or loosely rendered passages. Instead, they aimed for precision, aware of Psalm 12:6 (UASV): “The words of Jehovah are pure words, like silver refined in a furnace on the ground, purified seven times.” This imperative to maintain purity guided their labor.
The Armenian scribes and translators worked with Greek manuscripts that presented the text in forms recognized for their antiquity and reliability. The Armenian version, therefore, provides a significant witness to the state of the Greek text during the early centuries. By comparing Armenian readings with surviving Greek manuscripts, modern scholars discern the textual character of the exemplars that the Armenian translators consulted. The results show that the Armenian version aligns closely with reputable Greek textual traditions. This agreement enhances confidence in the Armenian version’s value for textual criticism and for understanding the early form of the biblical text.
The influence of the Armenian version reached beyond the strict canonical boundaries. The inclusion of various texts preserved in Armenian alone safeguards important historical and literary traditions that might otherwise have disappeared. The Armenian scribes did not discard these additional writings. They carefully copied and preserved them alongside canonical Scriptures. These manuscripts form a reservoir of textual material that sheds light on early Christian literature, doctrinal reflections, and narrative expansions related to biblical figures. The Armenian scriptural tradition thus operates as an archive, holding a wealth of text that illuminates the Christian world of the early centuries.
The Armenian translators approached their task with reverence and seriousness. They recognized that Scripture represents divine revelation. As Proverbs 30:5 (UASV) states, “Every word of God is refined; he is a shield to those who take refuge in him.” The Armenian believers anchored their faith in the certainty of the inspired Word, ensuring that their version conformed to the original meaning of the text. They did not introduce allegorical or mystical interpretations that would distort the text. Instead, they adhered to the objective historical-grammatical method, discerning the plain meaning of the inspired writings. Their fidelity ensures that the Armenian version remains a credible witness to the original message of Scripture.
Throughout centuries of transmission, Armenian scribes demonstrated a disciplined commitment to textual integrity. They copied manuscripts carefully, maintaining orthographic standards and consistent textual forms. Although human error entered in from time to time, the scribal process aimed at accuracy. When errors arose, scribes corrected them. This conscientious approach allowed the Armenian textual tradition to maintain stability over long periods. The exacting process ensured that the Armenian version would continue to serve as a reliable record of the apostolic teaching and prophetic proclamation.
The Armenian version occupies a unique position among the ancient translations. The Latin Vulgate and the Syriac Peshitta are renowned versions. The Armenian version stands alongside these esteemed texts in terms of antiquity, faithfulness, and cultural significance. Where the Latin Vulgate emerged under official ecclesiastical direction in the West, and the Syriac versions took shape in Semitic environments influenced by the language of the early church in Palestine and Syria, the Armenian version arose in a region that had embraced the gospel early and eagerly. Armenia’s decision to adopt Christianity as the official religion fostered an environment conducive to serious literary and scholarly efforts.
The Armenian Church, guided by leaders of deep conviction and learning, cultivated a textual tradition that included the Bible at its core. The translation of Scripture was not an isolated undertaking. It accompanied a broader literary movement that enriched Armenian spiritual and intellectual life. With Scripture as the foundation, Armenian Christianity could draw from the wellsprings of divine revelation without linguistic barriers. Believers encountered the Law, the Prophets, the Psalms, the Gospels, the Epistles, and other writings in a script that reflected their own phonetic system. The Scripture occupied a central place in worship, preaching, teaching, and private devotion.
Armenian scribes did not fear the complexity of the task. They systematically applied linguistic knowledge, employed Greek models, and relied on the expertise of calligraphers and scholars. They respected the Word of Jehovah, fulfilling the principle found in Psalm 119:105 (UASV): “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.” The Armenian version brought that light into the hearts and minds of believers who had once relied on oral translations. With the Armenian alphabet, they no longer depended on outside intermediaries. They possessed a direct connection to the text, allowing them to study, memorize, and discuss Scripture with clarity.
The Armenian manuscripts’ extensive colophons provide historians and textual scholars with details extending beyond the text itself. These notes record the identities of scribes, the circumstances of composition, the location and conditions of the scribal work, and events transpiring at the time. These details place the Armenian version within a concrete historical framework. Readers know that scribes labored under political pressures, economic hardships, or specific ecclesiastical conditions. The Scriptures were never treated as isolated artifacts. They emerged from real communities, living believers who valued precise textual transmission.
Modern investigation into the Armenian version confirms its value for textual studies of the New Testament and the Old Testament. Scholars compare Armenian readings with Greek manuscripts, Latin manuscripts, and Syriac manuscripts, gaining insights into the original form of the biblical text. The Armenian version holds keys to understanding variants, clarifying passages that differ among other ancient witnesses. By examining Armenian alignments with known textual families, researchers confirm stable textual streams reaching back into the early centuries.
The Armenian version also illuminates how early Christian communities viewed their canon. The presence of apocryphal works, the inclusion of writings that later generations classified as non-canonical, and the unique textual forms discovered in Armenian manuscripts reveal a formative period when the boundaries of the canon were approached with earnest study and deliberation. While the Armenian Church eventually aligned with the general consensus on canonical books, these early Armenian manuscripts preserve a memory of older textual traditions, showing that believers encountered a wide array of religious literature.
The translators and scribes who produced the Armenian version had no interest in speculative interpretation or allegory. They applied the objective historical-grammatical method, attending to the lexical meaning of words, the grammatical constructions of phrases, and the historical context of passages. By doing so, they safeguarded the doctrinal integrity of the Scriptures, preventing subjective readings that might distort the intended message. This discipline ensured that believers in Armenia and beyond could rely on the Armenian version as a trustworthy source of divine instruction.
The Armenians recognized the apostle’s counsel recorded at Romans 15:4 (UASV): “For whatever was written previously was written for our instruction, so that through the endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.” By providing the Word in Armenian, translators and scribes ensured that the faithful could draw encouragement, instruction, and hope directly from the pages of inspired Scripture. No linguistic obstacle hindered their access. The Armenian people received a permanent spiritual inheritance that enriched their doctrinal knowledge, worship, and moral life.
The Armenian version, with its early origins and voluminous manuscript tradition, stands as an important milestone in the story of how the Bible has come down to us. Its producers applied meticulous care, never tolerating casual approximations. They understood the truth of Psalm 119:160 (UASV): “The sum of your word is truth, and every one of your righteous judgments endures forever.” Their unwavering devotion to truth ensured that the Armenian version conveyed the inspired message faithfully.
The Armenian Church’s embrace of Christianity and its early adoption of a dedicated alphabet for Scripture set a standard for thoroughness. The presence of apocryphal works and additional writings in Armenian manuscripts provides a window into historical and literary traditions that would otherwise remain obscure. The Armenian version’s alignment with Greek sources and its occasional echoes of Syriac influence confirm that Armenia stood at a cultural crossroads. Rather than merely receiving a diluted form of Christianity, the Armenians took hold of primary sources, traveling widely to procure accurate manuscripts and then rendering them into their new alphabet.
In addition, the Armenian scribes preserved textual variants that reflect early Christian understandings of the Scriptures. The reference to the last twelve verses of Mark being attributed to “the presbyter Ariston” in an Armenian colophon provides a rare glimpse into how ancient communities explained variant endings. By documenting this information, the Armenian scribes prevented the loss of a significant historical testimony. Such careful preservation of textual and historical details underscores the reliability and seriousness of Armenian scriptural transmission.
The Armenian version, stable in its linguistic form and consistent in its textual approach, offered believers the means to ground their theology, worship, and Christian living on the inspired Word. The message of salvation, the teachings of the Law and the Prophets, the ministry and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the counsel of the apostles became fully accessible. This ensured that doctrine did not rest on vague oral traditions or second-hand explanations. Instead, the faithful held in their hands a text that originated from the divine fountain and reached them through meticulous scholarship and unwavering dedication.
Psalm 33:4 (UASV) declares: “For the word of Jehovah is upright, and all his work is done in faithfulness.” The Armenian translators and scribes mirrored this divine faithfulness in their work. Their translation and transmission of Scripture confirm that the Bible’s journey through languages, alphabets, and cultural boundaries never compromised its essential truth. Instead, each version, including the Armenian, demonstrates the providential care that safeguarded the inspired message across centuries.
The Armenian version stands as a landmark in the broader panorama of biblical translation. Its origin in a kingdom that had fully embraced Christianity, its linguistic achievements in the creation of an alphabet, its devotion to textual fidelity, and its comprehensive manuscript tradition solidify its position among the most significant ancient versions. When modern readers hold the Scriptures, they do so knowing that predecessors like the Armenian scribes poured vast energies into ensuring accuracy. This continuity in textual transmission fulfills the apostle’s reminder in 1 Peter 1:25 (UASV): “But the word of the Lord endures forever.” The Armenian version testifies to this enduring nature.
Modern readers who investigate the Armenian version find a reservoir of historical, linguistic, and textual information. The manuscripts, colophons, and variant readings provide concrete evidence that the transmission of Scripture was never casual. The faithful guardians of the text understood the gravity of their task. They did not treat the Word as a malleable artifact. They regarded it as the abiding revelation of Jehovah, demanding exact handling and reverential study. Their success in preserving a faithful version, enriched by unique textual elements, ensures that the Armenian version remains a vital chapter in the story of how the Bible traveled through time and space.
The Armenian version demonstrates that Christianity’s expansion never relied solely on second-hand knowledge. Instead, believers eagerly embraced the source texts, ensured their translation into local tongues, and anchored their faith in a written standard of truth. The precision and diligence manifested in the Armenian version reassure believers that the message of Scripture has not been lost or distorted through the centuries. Instead, it has been safeguarded, refined, and handed down so that all who seek Jehovah’s counsel can find it reliably recorded.
Psalm 119:89 (UASV) proclaims: “Forever, O Jehovah, your word is firmly fixed in the heavens.” The Armenian version, with its origins in the early fifth century and its continuous manuscript tradition, confirms that the divine Word remained fixed not only in heaven but also steadfastly preserved on earth. The Armenians established a textual heritage that withstood political upheavals, linguistic shifts, and countless challenges. Its survival attests to the unbreakable bond between divine revelation and devoted guardians who recognized the priceless value of the Scriptures.
The production of the Armenian version required scholars who mastered Greek and Syriac sources, scribes who wrote with unwavering accuracy, and church leaders who understood the necessity of having Scripture in the language of the people. The result was not an uncertain or fluid text but a stable and respected version recognized for its fidelity. Armenian believers read the inspired writings in their mother tongue, strengthening their grasp of Christian teaching and reinforcing their adherence to God’s will. The process by which these texts were gathered, alphabet standardized, and translations completed reflects extraordinary resolve.
The Armenian version, like all ancient versions, provides a model of textual stewardship. It assures that the Word did not drift from its original moorings. Instead, it was anchored in a version that reflects early textual forms and aligns closely with trusted Greek exemplars. For this reason, the Armenian version holds lasting importance for those who value the integrity of Scripture. It stands as a witness to the authenticity and endurance of divine revelation, giving modern readers further confidence that their Bibles are faithfully rooted in ancient manuscripts whose lineage can be traced to the earliest centuries of the Christian era.
In the grand narrative of how the Bible reached us, the Armenian version occupies a secure position. It emerged at a critical juncture when a language without a suitable alphabet gained one meticulously crafted for Scripture. It appeared in a kingdom fully committed to Christianity. It flourished in an environment that valued scholarship and holiness. It preserved not only canonical writings but also a range of related texts that broaden the horizon of early Christian literature. Each Armenian manuscript, with its careful script and detailed colophon, reaffirms that the guardians of Scripture took their responsibilities seriously.
The end result is that modern believers understand that the Scriptures they hold have not been subject to reckless transmission or shifting doctrinal whims. Instead, they have been safeguarded by communities such as the Armenian Church, who exercised faithful stewardship. The Armenian version’s long history, abundant manuscript evidence, and textual integrity confirm that the Bible has always been preserved and transmitted with unyielding dedication, fulfilling the statement in Psalm 119:152 (UASV): “Long have i known from your testimonies that you have founded them forever.”
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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