Scholars and students of Scripture often ask how the early Christian congregations could have preserved and transmitted their sacred writings so carefully when many have claimed that most of the population in the Roman Empire was illiterate. Even today, some argue that only a small minority could have accessed the written text of the New Testament. Others maintain that early Christians were more literate than many have assumed. These questions invite us to investigate the reading culture of early Christianity—its approach to books, letters, the materials and formats used, as well as the extent to which believers engaged the Scriptures. An honest assessment of all available evidence suggests that the New Testament books were not left to a supposedly illiterate community. Rather, they were received by congregations who recognized the value of reading and copying God’s Word. The goal here is to discover what this reading culture looked like, why Christians favored the codex over the roll, how scribes and readers worked together to produce standardized texts, and how these practices contributed to the widespread circulation of the New Testament.

A Universal Focus on the Codex and Nomina Sacra

One striking development in early Christianity was the consistent preference for the codex rather than the traditional roll (scroll). Roman society at large, especially the elite, tended to prefer the roll form for significant literary works, including pagan writings. However, orthodox Christians chose the codex form even in the late first and early second centuries C.E. This is especially noteworthy because certain apocryphal or non-orthodox “Christian” texts favored the roll form, which paralleled the pagan approach.

The codex was more portable, more convenient to produce and carry, and easier to consult for regular reading and study. Early Christian manuscripts that have survived—Gospels, Pauline letters, Old Testament copies used by Christians, the Apostolic Fathers, the Apologists, and the works of other early Church Fathers—show a consistent use of the codex. The earliest canonical Gospel fragments dating to the second or third century C.E. are in codex form, such as P22 (John 15:25–16:2, 21–32). A further revealing point is the standardization of format for Gospel codices: they had a particular size (11.5–14 cm in width), with the height about three centimeters taller than the width, suggesting a degree of uniformity. Other New Testament books often measured 12–14 cm in width, with taller heights as well, though still quite manageable. This shared size facilitated easier carrying and reading during Christian meetings. Such features reflect a shared attitude that texts should be accurate, handy, and broadly accessible.

Another prominent universal feature is the nomina sacra. This system of abbreviations and contractions of several frequently occurring divine names or titles is found throughout early Christian manuscripts. The earliest commonly abbreviated terms are God, Jesus, Christ, and Lord, though other words were added later (Son, Spirit, Father, Mother, David, Cross, Israel, Savior, Man, Jerusalem, and Heaven). Early on, it was decided that even if a word like “Lord” was used in a mundane sense, it would still be abbreviated. For instance, the Greek kurios (Lord) was contracted in P66 (about 200 C.E.) whether it referred to Jesus or some non-sacred use of “lord” in a parable. Similarly, pneuma (spirit) was contracted in P75 (about 175–225 C.E.) even if it referred to an unclean spirit. This demonstrates a universal system across orthodox Christian circles, manifesting a systematic concern for preserving a distinct approach to divine names and highlighting a united culture of textual production.

The Reading Culture and Its Distinctiveness

Early Christian manuscripts reveal a stable and widespread culture of reading that differed sharply from the Roman elite reading culture. Roman elites often wrote in scriptio continua—continuous script without spacing, punctuation, or diacritical marks. They also favored narrow columns that were visually ornate. These stylistic choices required advanced training, effectively locking out those not skilled in deciphering challenging scripts. They also continued using the roll form, which was unwieldy.

Christians, in contrast, quickly adapted the codex. They chose handwriting styles that were simpler, more rounded, and more legible than the highly decorative scripts used by the Roman elite. Although early Christian manuscripts still sometimes used scriptio continua, they tended to incorporate more reader-friendly features. Their preference for a simpler style, along with standardized abbreviations like nomina sacra, reduced confusion and facilitated public reading. The higher premium placed on accurately reproducing content, rather than producing an elegant artistic manuscript, allowed the Christian congregations to disseminate the text more widely. This indicates that early Christians were aiming for maximum clarity and convenience rather than exclusivity.

Extent of Literacy in the Roman Empire

Historians have often cited studies suggesting that the average literacy rate in the Roman Empire hovered around 10–20 percent, or even as low as 5–10 percent in some regions, with an even smaller percentage able to write. However, a closer look at archaeological, papyrological, and epigraphical evidence from about 50 B.C.E. to 325 C.E. provides a different perspective. Many personal letters on papyrus, inscriptions on buildings, tombstones, legal documents, graffiti, and business records indicate a broader literacy than those low estimates might suggest.

There were newspapers in ancient Rome, referred to as the Acta Diurna (Daily Acts or Daily Events), published from about 59 B.C.E. onward, continuing well into the early centuries of the Christian congregation. These daily notices included official decrees, court proceedings, births, marriages, deaths, festivals, and even gossip or human-interest stories. Copies were posted in public places, like bathhouses, and read by a surprisingly large segment of the population. It is logical to assume that this practice implies a community that could read and disseminate such news widely. Papyrus, even in lower grades, was used to share these updates, suggesting that ephemeral writing was more common than many assume.

Individuals from various strata—slaves, freedmen, soldiers, artisans, shopkeepers, and so forth—are on record using or producing written texts. Many could read but lacked refined penmanship or orthographic skill, so they often hired professional scribes or secretaries to write for them. The evidence from sites such as Oxyrhynchus and Vindolanda underscores that soldiers, their wives, and even servants had at least basic reading and writing skills, with some achieving higher levels of competence. That environment naturally shaped the early Christian churches, as many believers came from these same social categories.

Jewish Roots of Literacy

Early Christianity emerged initially from a Jewish environment in which the study of Scripture was highly valued. Deuteronomy 6:6-9 commands God’s people to keep his words on their hearts, figuratively binding them on their hands and between their eyes, and writing them upon the doorposts. Jewish children often learned at home, with the father as the primary teacher, ensuring they could handle the Torah. References in Josephus speak of the importance placed on education. Josephus writes, “Our principle care of all is this, to educate our children well.” He further states that the Law commanded parents to teach children the precepts of their ancestors, preventing any pretense of ignorance.

In the time of Jesus, synagogues frequently served as centers of instruction in reading the Hebrew Scriptures, which were sometimes read in Hebrew and sometimes in the Greek Septuagint. Jesus himself, growing up in Nazareth, would have been familiar with the Scriptures from an early age, and the Gospel of Luke shows him reading from Isaiah in the synagogue (Luke 4:16-17). Many Jewish families prided themselves on their ability to read the Law. Therefore, when Gentiles joined the predominantly Jewish Christian congregation, they often encountered a tradition that already took reading Scripture seriously.

Could Jesus and the Apostles Read?

Jesus is depicted challenging his opponents with phrases such as, “Have you not read…?” (Matthew 12:3). He quotes from the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, indicating an intimate knowledge of written Scripture. Luke 4:16-17 portrays him reading Isaiah, handing the scroll back to the attendant, then expounding on the text. Critics who assert that the Gospels might have invented these episodes cannot easily reconcile them with the well-attested Jewish emphasis on reading the Scriptures. John 7:15 references the Jewish leaders’ surprise, asking how Jesus “has learning when he has never studied,” meaning he had not attended the elite rabbinic schools. There is no reason to assume that the ability to read was limited to rabbinic scholars. Ordinary Jewish children could learn to read and write because of their immersion in the Law from youth.

The apostles also appear conversant with written Scripture. Peter and John, called “uneducated and untrained men” (Acts 4:13), were recognized by the authorities as lacking formal rabbinic schooling, not as illiterates. Yet years later, they authored epistles now preserved in the New Testament. The apostle Paul, more formally educated under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), wrote letters that accounted for a substantial portion of the New Testament canon. In any case, even those without advanced training worked with secretaries (amanuenses) to produce letters, as evidenced in Romans 16:22. These apostles expected their letters to be circulated and read (Colossians 4:16; 1 Thessalonians 5:27), which would have no purpose in a community wholly incapable of reading.

The Role of the Reader and the Public Reading of Scripture

A distinctive aspect of early Christian worship was the communal reading of Scripture and apostolic writings. This practice mirrored the synagogue tradition, in which portions of the Law and Prophets were read and explained every Sabbath. Paul instructed Timothy: “Devote yourself to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation, to teaching.” (1 Timothy 4:13) Justin Martyr, around 155 C.E., describes Sunday gatherings in which “the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets” were read, and after the reader finished, an overseer offered commentary.

These details strongly indicate that, although not everyone in the congregation might be able to read, enough individuals could read and teach so that the entire group benefited from the text. Some were assigned roles as readers or scribes. P72 (third or fourth century C.E.) contains a subscription to 1 and 2 Peter that states: “Peace to the one having written and to the one having read.” This reference implies a recognized twofold process of producing and then publicly proclaiming or explaining the text. Congregations typically possessed manuscript collections—letters from apostles and other authoritative works. The simpler handwriting, codex format, and recurring system of nomina sacra meant the documents were intended for easy reference.

Manuscript Evidence from the Papyri

Surviving manuscripts such as P66 (about 200 C.E.) and P75 (about 175–225 C.E.) show a concern for readability and consistency. The presence of nomina sacra for sacred terms, the moderate use of punctuation or spacing, and the adoption of a book-like codex format highlight a text-centered community. Codices were cheaper to produce, used both sides of the writing material, and allowed quicker navigation. This approach differs from the highly elaborate scrolls of the Roman elite.

In addition to codices for Scripture, Christians produced codices for works from early Church Fathers. Works of men such as Ignatius and Polycarp were also copied. The Apologists, including authors who defended Christianity against pagan critiques, circulated their writings in codex form too, indicating an entire ecosystem of Christian book production. This universal pattern testifies to an underlying culture that valued the written word. Widespread distribution of these texts would not have been practical without a network of literate scribes and readers. The transmission of writings across congregations from Rome to Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi, Antioch, and elsewhere is apparent when one considers the interconnections in the letters and patristic citations.

Scribes, Copyists, and Accuracy

Early Christian scribes took pride in maintaining accurate copies of their texts. The scribal process was meticulous, though not infallible, as shown by the variants that exist among the manuscripts. However, many variants are minor—spelling differences, synonyms, or slight rearrangements—and rarely affect the meaning. This stability suggests that Christians understood the Scriptures to be a sacred trust (2 Timothy 3:16).

The practice of forming scriptoria—places where multiple scribes worked—may not have emerged in a formal sense until the church grew significantly after the third century, but smaller-scale copying efforts existed from the start. Individuals such as Tertius, who penned the letter to the Romans (Romans 16:22), illustrate that the apostle might dictate to a competent writer. Paul then added a personal greeting in his own hand. Over time, as Christian communities multiplied, local scribes took responsibility to create new copies or replace worn-out codices. Their aim was not to produce lavishly ornamented texts but to preserve an authentic reading for the edification of the people. The consistent use of nomina sacra was a further unifying practice, revealing a desire for uniformity.

Gnostic and Apocryphal Writings

Some scholars argue that Gnostic or apocryphal groups rivaled what became known as orthodox Christianity, implying that the latter eventually stamped out alternatives. Yet the manuscript evidence does not support this view. Many apocryphal works appear in roll form or in formats that indicate private usage rather than communal reading. They lack the wide citation by Christian Fathers of the second or third century. The so-called “heretical” movements did not produce the same evidence of systematic copying and circulation across multiple regions. By contrast, the canonical Gospels enjoyed a nearly universal acceptance that included consistent scribal practices and distribution. Other than the occasional mention, there is no sign that the wider Christian congregations read or collected the apocryphal Gospels in the same manner.

Early Christian Reading Communities Compared to the Roman Elite

The contrast between Christian reading communities and the Roman elite is important. William A. Johnson observed that the Roman upper classes deliberately retained formats that were off-putting to those outside their circle. They prized intricate calligraphy, consistent narrow columns, and large margins that highlighted the aesthetic aspect of a scroll. There was less concern for user-friendly readability, as reading was meant to reinforce an elite bond. In some ways, it was a social barrier.

Christians did the opposite. They favored convenient codices, used simpler handwriting, inserted standard abbreviations, and showed more concern for comprehensible layout. They emphasized the content rather than the visual allure of the text. Their goal was not to repel the untrained but to ensure that believers throughout the Empire could read or hear the Scriptures regularly. That posture, combined with the Jewish tradition of reading sacred texts publicly, led to a robust communal reading culture. Those who could read did so on behalf of those who could not, but many more people learned the basics of literacy to handle or share the Scriptures themselves.

Variations in Literacy Levels

The reality of the Roman Empire was complex. Some segments of the population were illiterate or only partially literate. Others had rudimentary reading skills but lacked the ability to write. Still others were advanced writers who served as professional copyists or secretaries. Regional differences also influenced literacy rates. A small village in Egypt might have less access to formal education than a major city like Antioch or Alexandria. Nonetheless, early Christians came from every corner of the Empire, and they had incentive to learn basic reading. They believed that Scripture was divinely inspired and thus precious, and they used written texts in worship, instruction, and evangelism.

Members of the early Christian movement were not restricted to slaves or the very poor. The New Testament mentions individuals such as Lydia, a merchant of purple cloth (Acts 16:14), and Erastus, the city treasurer (Romans 16:23). Some congregations had members who possessed the resources to share property, open their homes for gatherings, and sponsor the copying of texts. They even used scribes for letter-writing. Over time, those with more advanced skills would serve the community by making multiple copies for distribution.

Proofs from Oxyrhynchus and Vindolanda

Papyri from Oxyrhynchus reveal that copying and reading were parts of daily life in at least some Egyptian towns. Over five hundred thousand documents were discovered in the garbage dumps of Oxyrhynchus, many of which were private letters, commercial records, or educational texts. Only a fraction has been edited or translated in modern times. Even so, these fragments show an active culture of letter-writing, note-taking, and personal record-keeping. We also find references to Christian works among these papyri, which implies that believers there procured, copied, and circulated New Testament books.

Vindolanda, a Roman fort near Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, provides yet another example through its famous writing tablets. These tablets preserve everyday notes between soldiers, requests for supplies, birthday invitations, and other mundane exchanges. The texts include writing from people of various ranks and backgrounds, often in a casual style. The fact that many could read or write to some extent suggests that literacy was broader than the minimal percentages once assumed.

Communal Reading in the Time of Jesus

Studies of communal reading in the first century C.E. show that it was normal for a single letter to be read aloud to a gathered group. The New Testament references this practice explicitly, urging believers to read letters from apostolic sources and then pass them along to other congregations. (Colossians 4:16) This communal reading reinforced unity and ensured that individuals who could not read for themselves would still know the letter’s content. Paul exhorted the Thessalonians: “I put you under oath to have this letter read to all the brothers.” (1 Thessalonians 5:27) That statement proves that reading was central to Christian worship, with enough literate members to fulfill that role.

Impact of Reading Culture on the Text’s Preservation

Because the early Christians cherished the text as God’s Word, they were motivated to pass it along accurately. That motivation, combined with the common codex format and scribal conventions like nomina sacra, yielded a fairly standardized text. While certain variations arose among copyists, the textual tradition remained stable enough that we can reconstruct the original readings of the New Testament with a high degree of confidence. The notion that the text was left to random scribes with little skill or interest does not align with the evidence of a community that regularly read, studied, and referenced these writings. (1 Corinthians 14:26; Revelation 1:3)

Reasons for Codex Adoption

The codex offered several advantages over the scroll for Christian use. It allowed writing on both sides of the material, saving space and cost. It was more portable and could contain multiple Gospels or letters in one book. It made the text easier to search, a practical benefit for frequent references. The early Christians recognized that the codex enhanced their ability to read and share the Scriptures during worship gatherings. By the second century, some codices included multiple Pauline epistles or a four-Gospel collection. A single codex might store the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Such a gathering of texts reveals both a high view of these writings as inspired and a desire to have them always on hand.

Jewish Synagogue Influence

The synagogue tradition, in which the Law and Prophets were read weekly, formed an immediate backdrop for early Christian practices. New converts from Judaism would have been accustomed to reading the Scriptures in public. Gentile believers, too, learned from that habit, since many first encountered the Hebrew Scriptures (in Greek translation) by attending synagogues as “God-fearers.” (Acts 10:2; 13:16) So early church services incorporated similar components: singing praises, reading Scriptures, and exhorting or explaining the passages. (Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16)

Examples of Public Inscriptions

Roman cities abounded with inscriptions on monuments, temples, walls, and other public venues. Though some were quite formal and visually elaborate, others were more straightforward. Gravestones in particular often displayed more than a mere name. Some contained lengthy dedications or poetic epitaphs, sometimes even curses against would-be thieves. This indicates that the authors of these inscriptions believed the passersby or grave robbers would be able to read them. There is no reason to suspect that Christian communities would lack the ability to read, especially if pagans of various social ranks possessed that skill.

Christian Graffiti

Christian inscriptions and graffiti have also been found in catacombs and other sites. Graffiti in the ancient world was far from the random vandalism sometimes associated with modern graffiti. Instead, it often signified personal messages, prayers, or greetings meant to be read by others. In Pompeii, thousands of graffiti messages were preserved under volcanic ash, revealing an environment where people wrote about everyday matters, love, social interactions, business announcements, or witty remarks. Some graffiti is bilingual, demonstrating that individuals moved comfortably between Latin and Greek. Christian graffiti similarly shows that believers left scriptural references or references to “Lord Jesus,” presumably for others to see and appreciate.

Different Levels of Literacy Within the Church

Although the early congregations likely included some who could not read, there was always a portion who could. This is consistent with Paul’s statements that not many were wise or noble in the world’s eyes (1 Corinthians 1:26). The church encompassed a broad social spectrum, yet it still maintained a reading and writing network strong enough to preserve and spread the Scriptures. Some gifted brothers would read aloud at the gatherings. Others served as scribes to copy apostolic letters. Some, like the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:27-39, personally owned a scroll of Isaiah and read it while traveling. That scene underscores both the availability of Scripture and the existence of individuals across the Empire who knew how to handle it.

Education of Children in the Congregation

Like their Jewish predecessors, early Christians placed emphasis on teaching children. The later Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy, Titus) highlight the importance of knowing the Scriptures from youth. (2 Timothy 3:15) While formal schools varied in quality and accessibility, parents would pass on basic reading skills so that children could participate in the congregation’s spiritual life. Some early Christians likely continued the synagogue style of informal instruction, ensuring that the essential ability to read the sacred texts was preserved. Churches that formed in major urban centers had even greater opportunities for educating youth.

Testimony of Patristic Writers

From the mid-second century onward, we see statements from authors like Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria describing how Scripture was read, copied, and quoted in their communities. Justin Martyr (about 155 C.E.) specifically describes how believers gathered weekly to read the “memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets.” Tertullian, writing around 200 C.E., challenges heretical groups, pointing out the continuity of Christian teachings in widely circulated texts that could be consulted by anyone in the orthodox congregations. This suggests that believers had a stable and recognized textual tradition, which would not be possible if the majority had no contact with written material.

Jewish Influences on Christian Copying Practices

Early Jewish scribes had already established traditions of copying the Hebrew Scriptures with deep reverence for accuracy. Some of these scribal norms may have migrated into Christian practices, especially among Jewish Christians who were already trained in synagogue reading. The Christians evidently extended these to Greek texts, ensuring the faithful transmission of the New Testament. The emphasis on reading God’s Word aloud in the congregation meant that errors could be caught, as repeated recitations highlighted any irregularities. The uniform approach to nomina sacra might have been partly influenced by Jewish scribal abbreviations of the divine name, though Christians adapted that to fit the Greek text. All of this indicates a deliberate and unified approach to preserving the text.

Private vs. Public Texts

The difference between canonical Christian texts and certain apocryphal or Gnostic writings can be seen in their intended use. Canonical writings were clearly prepared for communal reading, as indicated by the codex format, consistent scribal features, standard abbreviations, and an immediate acceptance across multiple regions. Apocryphal texts often lack these features or exist in private copies that do not show repeated attempts at standardization. Some second-century Gnostic “gospels” do not appear in widespread quotations from early Fathers, nor do they show a strong interest in adapting to a communal reading environment. Their limited distribution underscores that the mainstream congregations treated them as outside the recognized corpus.

Rebutting the Myth of an Exclusively Oral Culture

Some have claimed that the early church functioned almost entirely on oral tradition for decades or centuries, implying that a written New Testament was not highly regarded. This is contradicted by the presence of letters attributed to the apostles, which circulated as early as the mid-first century. Paul urges the reading of his letters. Peter recognizes Paul’s letters as having authority (2 Peter 3:15-16). John writes letters in his old age (about 95–98 C.E.) that assume believers will receive them in written form. The fact that Christian manuscripts from the second century survive in papyrus copies means that the written word was being preserved, not neglected. Oral communication and written documents worked side by side in the early church, with reading standing at the center of worship gatherings.

Importance of the Evangelistic Mandate

Jesus commanded his followers: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations.” (Matthew 28:19-20) Such a commission required the church to communicate the good news as widely as possible. Reading and writing became valuable tools in that process. Missionaries carried copies of Scripture to new regions. Early translators began rendering the Scriptures into local tongues, such as Coptic in Egypt or Syriac in Syria. These translations appeared by the late second or early third century C.E. so that local believers could read Scripture in their own languages. Such translation work presupposes that many communities had enough literate members to benefit from these versions. This impetus to spread the message caused the church to invest in textual production. The result was an enduring tradition of scribal activity throughout the Roman world.

The Roman Acta Diurna and the Wider Evidence of Literacy

Rome’s daily newspaper, the Acta Diurna, circulated official announcements for more than two centuries. It was posted publicly, often in bathhouses or forums, enabling citizens to read about Senate decisions, trials, marriages, and births. This environment proved that reading was not the province of a tiny aristocracy. The wide array of graffiti, personal letters, inscriptions, advertisements, and posted decrees attests that reading skills extended beyond the elite. As the church grew from a Jewish base into the broader Greco-Roman population, Christians encountered an environment where reading was more common than some scholars have asserted.

Scriptural Emphasis on Reading in the Congregation

The biblical text frequently underscores the importance of reading. In Luke 4:16, Jesus reads from Isaiah; in Acts 13:15, the synagogue reading is central; in Revelation 1:3, a blessing is pronounced upon “the one who reads aloud the words of the prophecy.” Some critics have claimed that John 16:13 applies to all Christians, but scripturally, it applied directly to the apostles, not granting a separate revelatory authority to every Christian. Instead, the early Christians relied on the inspired writings for guidance (2 Timothy 3:14-17). Their reverence for these inspired texts made them conscientious about obtaining copies and reading them carefully in their gatherings.

Influence on Textual Criticism Today

Modern textual critics, faced with thousands of Greek manuscripts, must consider the historical environment in which these copies emerged. The consistent patterns of abbreviations for divine names, the preference for the codex, and the presence of parallel readings in different regions confirm that early Christians were actively engaged in reading, copying, and sharing these books. Variants in manuscripts reflect normal scribal processes rather than wholesale neglect or random changes. The strong interest in preserving apostolic doctrine helps explain why the text remains generally stable despite the presence of minor variations.

The House-Church Factor

Many early believers met in homes, which often served as small libraries for Christian books and letters. These house gatherings facilitated repeated readings of Scripture, discussion, and group memorization. If there was any doubt about an odd reading or potential scribal error, the presence of multiple manuscripts and cross-checking between congregations offered a safeguard. Philemon, for example, presumably opened his house to the congregation (Philemon 2), and such a location would encourage regular use of Scripture, including the letter from Paul addressed to him.

Jewish Writing Customs That Influenced Christian Texts

Jewish scribes were accustomed to copying the Old Testament Scriptures on scrolls. They often wrote the divine name (represented in Hebrew letters) with special care. In Greek manuscripts of the Old Testament, the Tetragrammaton might be transliterated or replaced with a divine title. Early Christians, adopting Greek as their main language, retained a practice of reverence for sacred terms, though they standardized it differently with nomina sacra. That shared approach across various Christian centers implies a conscious network that transmitted textual norms.

Education in the Post-Apostolic Age

By the late second century and onward, formal catechetical schools in cities like Alexandria and Antioch emerged. Teachers like Clement of Alexandria and Origen dedicated themselves to instructing believers in doctrine and Scripture. They wrote commentaries and integrated biblical exegesis into their teachings. This educational atmosphere continued into the third century, bolstering knowledge of the text among Christians. As persecution sometimes forced believers into hiding, scribes and teachers still managed to produce copies for distribution and archiving. Even if official scriptoria were not fully developed, the localized copying efforts in significant urban centers helped sustain the reading culture.

Reasons Gnostic Writings Did Not Dominate

Some modern scholars posit that Gnostic or other heretical writings once held an equal footing. In reality, these writings lacked the marks of communal usage found in the orthodox writings. They were not broadly quoted by the prominent church teachers in the second century, nor do we see consistent scribal conventions linking them across regions. Instead, they appear sporadically, sometimes in private collections. Their content often presented a secret knowledge not designed for public reading, which explains why they did not shape a reading community akin to the universal early Christian practice. This stark difference reinforces that mainstream believers were focused on the apostolic writings.

Travel and Transmission of the New Testament Writings

The journeys of Paul, Barnabas, Silas, Timothy, and other early missionaries show how quickly Christian teachings spread from Jerusalem to Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and eventually Rome. Letters accompanied these evangelists, or followed them, creating an established network of textual circulation. Tychicus is mentioned as a courier for Paul’s letters (Ephesians 6:21-22; Colossians 4:7-8). The presence of letters in widely separated congregations testifies to a purposeful system of reading and copying. Believers eagerly anticipated new letters and took pains to distribute them to fellow congregations, indicating a strong sense that the documents held binding authority.

Private Collections and the Growth of the Canon

By the end of the first century, multiple churches had access to various apostolic texts. Some recognized collections formed around the letters of Paul, the four Gospels, or general epistles. The second century saw citations of these books by leaders like Ignatius, Polycarp, and later by Irenaeus. The codex format allowed groupings of Pauline epistles or the fourfold Gospel to be bound together. This structure aided the eventual recognition of a set canon, distinct from spurious or localized texts. Reading and re-reading these recognized texts was foundational to the church’s doctrinal unity.

Conclusion: A People of the Book

The question, “What does the early reading culture reveal about the transmission of the New Testament?” finds an answer in the historical evidence. Early Christians were committed to reading the Scriptures in communal worship. They standardized their manuscripts with shared conventions like the codex format and nomina sacra, facilitating consistent copying across diverse regions. They valued content over luxury in their writing style, making it easier for more people to engage with the text. They benefited from a broader Roman environment where practical literacy was more prevalent than some modern estimates claim. Jewish educational traditions and a widespread sense of responsibility for proclaiming God’s Word spurred believers to read and copy these writings diligently.

The result was a movement that successfully circulated and preserved twenty-seven distinct books as the New Testament. Those writings informed the faith and practice of Christian communities, shaping a text-oriented tradition that cared greatly about fidelity to the apostolic message. The reading culture that undergirded the transmission of the New Testament, therefore, stands as powerful testimony to a network of believers who were neither illiterate nor disinterested in writing. They were zealous guardians of a text they believed was guided by divine inspiration, convinced that what they read had the power to transform hearts and unite congregations in one faith.

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