The Origins of Writing and Its Implications for Biblical Texts
Writing, the process of inscribing symbols to convey language, predates the Hebrew Scriptures by many centuries. Early civilizations such as those in Mesopotamia and Egypt had established writing systems well before the biblical era, as evidenced by archaeological findings. For example, clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform from Mesopotamia date back to at least 2000 B.C.E., and Egyptian hieroglyphs extend even further into antiquity, appearing on monuments and tombs. These findings debunk earlier claims by critical scholars that writing was unknown during Moses’ time, a position once used to question his authorship of the Pentateuch.
Cuneiform tablet from Nippur, in the name of Shar-Kali-Sharri, after 2100 BCE.
The development of writing likely emerged as societies required ways to document transactions, laws, and religious practices. While it is uncertain when or where writing began, its use was widespread in ancient cultures. Genesis 5:1 introduces “the book of Adam’s history,” which has led some to speculate about pre-Flood writing. However, the Bible provides no direct evidence that Adam or any other pre-Flood individual wrote. Still, given the advancements in metallurgy, architecture, and music before the Flood (Genesis 4:17, 21-22), the development of a written system would not be implausible.
Pre-Flood and Early Post-Flood Writing Systems
Although the Bible does not confirm pre-Flood writing, historical and archaeological records indicate that advanced writing systems existed shortly after the Flood. The Assyrian King Ashurbanipal claimed to have read inscriptions from “before the Flood.” While these records likely referred to local or mythological floods rather than the global event described in Genesis 6–8, they suggest an early recognition of the value of documenting significant events.
After the Flood, writing systems diversified as human language fragmented at Babel (Genesis 11:1-9). This dispersion led to the development of various scripts, such as cuneiform in Mesopotamia, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and early alphabetic scripts in the Levant. Cuneiform, developed by the Sumerians, evolved from pictographs into a sophisticated system of wedge-shaped characters. Similarly, Egyptian hieroglyphs, used primarily for monumental inscriptions, eventually gave rise to the cursive hieratic and demotic scripts.
The Development of the Alphabet and Its Role in Hebrew Scripture
The invention of the alphabet was a pivotal moment in the history of writing. Unlike pictorial or syllabic systems, the alphabet used a small set of symbols to represent individual sounds, making it more efficient and accessible. The Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, dating to around 1500 B.C.E. near Mount Sinai, represent the earliest known examples of alphabetic writing. These inscriptions, carved into rock, provide critical evidence that alphabetic systems were in use long before Moses.
Proto-Sinaitic inscription #346, the first published photograph of the script.[1] The line running from the upper left to lower right may read mt l bʿlt “… to the Lady”
By the time of Moses (circa 1500–1400 B.C.E.), multiple writing systems, including cuneiform and various alphabetic scripts, were in use in the Near East. This availability undermines the argument that Moses could not have authored the Torah. Exodus 24:4 explicitly states, “Moses wrote down all the words of Jehovah,” affirming his ability to record the divine instructions given at Mount Sinai.
Literacy Among the Israelites
Literacy was an integral part of Israelite society, particularly among leaders and priests. Key figures such as Moses, Joshua, and Samuel wrote extensively, as evidenced by passages like Joshua 24:26 and 1 Samuel 10:25. The Law itself required that kings personally transcribe a copy of the Torah and read it daily to guide their rule (Deuteronomy 17:18-19). This practice ensured that the leaders of Israel were not only literate but also deeply familiar with God’s commands.
Archaeologists have discovered hundreds of thousands of examples of graffiti on the outsides of buildings throughout the ancient Roman world, over 11,000 in Pompeii alone.
The Israelites’ literacy extended beyond the elite. Deuteronomy 6:9 instructed families to inscribe God’s words on the doorposts of their homes, a directive that presupposed the ability to write. Judges 8:14 describes a young man who could write down the names of seventy-seven officials, further illustrating that writing was not limited to a select few.
Materials and Methods of Writing
The Israelites primarily used perishable materials such as papyrus and parchment for their writings. Papyrus, made from the pith of the papyrus plant, was widely used in Egypt and surrounding regions. Parchment, prepared from animal skins, became the preferred medium for important documents, including the Scriptures. Writing instruments included styluses for clay tablets and brushes or reeds for ink-based writing.
A skin of parchment stretched on a frame
Stone and clay were also used for inscriptions intended to last. For instance, the Ten Commandments were written by Jehovah Himself on stone tablets (Exodus 31:18). Clay tablets, common in Mesopotamia, were inscribed with a stylus and then baked to harden the text. While durable, these materials were less practical for extensive texts.
The Preservation of Scripture
The transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures depended on meticulous copying by scribes. The Israelites viewed the Word of God as sacred and took extreme care to preserve its accuracy. Deuteronomy 31:24-26 describes how Moses wrote the Torah and commanded the Levites to store it beside the Ark of the Covenant, emphasizing its significance and the need for faithful preservation.
Over time, professional scribes known as the Masoretes developed a meticulous system for copying the Scriptures. They introduced vowel points to the consonantal Hebrew text to ensure consistent pronunciation and understanding. Despite the challenges of preserving texts written on fragile materials, the fidelity of the biblical text is remarkable. For example, the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating from the second century B.C.E. to the first century C.E., confirm the accuracy of the Masoretic Text, which remains the basis for most modern translations of the Old Testament.
Writing Systems in Neighboring Cultures
The Israelites were not isolated in their use of writing. Neighboring cultures, such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Assyrians, employed their own systems for administrative, legal, and religious purposes. These systems influenced the broader context in which the Bible was written and transmitted.
For example, the Babylonian use of cuneiform for royal inscriptions and legal documents parallels the recording of Israelite history and laws in the Scriptures. The Egyptians’ hieroglyphic inscriptions, though primarily decorative, share thematic similarities with the poetic and narrative elements of the Bible.
Archaeological Evidence Supporting the Biblical Record
Archaeological discoveries have provided significant support for the historical reliability of the Bible. Clay tablets from Mesopotamia, such as the Code of Hammurabi and the Ebla tablets, demonstrate the widespread use of writing for recording laws, treaties, and historical events. These findings corroborate the biblical narrative’s depiction of a literate and organized society.
Ebla Tablets – A tablet from the archive
The Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, discovered near the traditional location of Mount Sinai, further confirm the use of alphabetic writing in the region during the time of Moses. These inscriptions, coupled with the evidence of other ancient writing systems, validate the claim that Moses could have authored the Torah.
Unique Aspects of the Bible as a Written Work
While other ancient texts often served administrative or ceremonial purposes, the Bible is unique in its spiritual focus and enduring relevance. Unlike the Sumerian King List or Egyptian mortuary texts, which contain mythological elements and exaggerated claims, the Bible presents a coherent narrative grounded in historical events. Its moral and theological teachings continue to influence countless lives.
The Bible’s longevity and impact are a testament to its divine origin and the providential care that has preserved it through centuries of human history. As Psalm 119:89 declares, “Your word, O Jehovah, is firmly fixed in the heavens.”
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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