The Ancient Records of the Greek New Testament

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The question of how we know what the New Testament writers actually wrote in the latter part of the first Christian century is central to the study of biblical texts. Understanding the kinds of manuscripts (MSS) in which the Scriptures were preserved until the invention of the printing press, which made it possible to produce an unlimited number of identical copies, is essential. This article examines the ancient records of the Greek New Testament, focusing on the earliest MSS and their significance.

The Autographs and Early Copies

The autographs, or original manuscripts, were the texts actually written by New Testament authors or their scribes. These documents were the final product of the author’s inspiration by the Holy Spirit and served as the authoritative source. The process of creating these autographs varied; some authors wrote everything themselves, while others dictated to scribes who would then write the text. Examples in the New Testament include Paul’s letter to the Romans, where Tertius is noted as the scribe (Rom. 16:22), and 1 Peter, where Silvanus is mentioned (1 Pet. 5:12).

These autographs, once completed, were considered authoritative and inspired. They were the standard against which all subsequent copies were measured. The accuracy of these early copies was paramount, as they served as the foundation for the transmission of the New Testament text through the centuries.

Papyri Manuscripts

The earliest known MSS of the New Testament are papyrus manuscripts in codex form, dating as far back as the second century. Over a hundred of these papyri have been discovered, primarily in Egypt, preserved by the dry climate. These MSS vary in size from tiny fragments to large codices containing significant portions of the New Testament.

Discovery and Significance

The first modern discovery of papyrus MSS was in 1778 in the Fayum province of Egypt. Initially, these documents, mostly non-literary in nature, were not recognized for their significance and were often destroyed. By the late nineteenth century, scholars began to appreciate their value for understanding the customs, culture, and language of their time. Adolf Deissmann’s work, “Light from the Ancient East,” highlights the importance of these papyri.

Notable Papyri

P52 (100-150 C.E.): Known as the Rylands fragment, it is the earliest known fragment of the New Testament, containing parts of the Gospel of John.
P45 (175-225 C.E.): Part of the Chester Beatty collection, it includes portions of the Gospels and Acts.
P46 (100-150 C.E.): Another Chester Beatty papyrus, containing the Pauline Epistles.
P47 (200-250 C.E.): This papyrus includes parts of Revelation.
P66 (100-150 C.E.): A Bodmer Library papyrus, it contains large portions of the Gospel of John.
P72 (200-250 C.E.): Also from the Bodmer Library, it contains Jude and 1 and 2 Peter.
P75 (175-225 C.E.): One of the most accurate and valuable papyri, it contains portions of Luke and John.

These papyri provide critical insights into the early transmission of the New Testament text, revealing both the care and occasional errors of early scribes.

Uncial Manuscripts

While papyrus MSS were written in uncial letters, the term “uncial manuscript” typically refers to parchment MSS. Parchment began to replace papyrus as early as the second century and became the dominant material by the third century. The shift to parchment, combined with the legalization of Christianity under Emperor Constantine in 325 C.E., allowed for more systematic and professional copying of the Scriptures.

Notable Uncials

Codex Sinaiticus (א, 01): Dating to about 350 C.E., this codex originally contained both the Old and New Testaments. It is one of the most important MSS of the New Testament.
Codex Alexandrinus (A, 02): Written in the fifth century, it also contained both testaments and is known for its beautiful handwriting.
Codex Vaticanus (B, 03): Mid-fourth century, this codex is the most important single MS of the New Testament, housed in the Vatican Library.
Codex Bezae (D, 05): A fifth-century manuscript featuring Greek and Latin texts on facing pages, containing the Gospels and Acts.
Codex Claromontanus (D, 06): Another fifth-century MS, this one contains the Pauline Epistles.
Codex Zacynthius (Ξ, 040): A sixth-century palimpsest containing the Gospel of Luke with extensive commentary.
Codex Purpureus Petropolitanus (Ν, 022): One of the purple manuscripts written in silver ink, dating to the sixth century.

The Role of the Alexandrian Manuscripts

The Alexandrian manuscripts, such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, are highly valued in textual criticism for their early dates and textual quality. The Alexandrian text-type, characterized by its brevity and textual consistency, reflects careful copying practices and is considered the most reliable text-type for reconstructing the original New Testament text.

Codex Vaticanus

Codex Vaticanus (B, 03), housed in the Vatican Library, is dated to the mid-fourth century (300-330 C.E.) and is one of the oldest and most important MSS of the Greek Bible. It originally contained the entire Old and New Testaments, with the New Testament text written in three columns per page. Its text is considered one of the most reliable witnesses to the original New Testament text.

Codex Sinaiticus

Codex Sinaiticus (א, 01), discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in the mid-19th century at St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai, is another key Alexandrian manuscript. Dated to around 330-360 C.E., it also contained the entire Bible, with the New Testament text written in four columns per page. It is one of the most complete and significant early New Testament MSS.

Parchment Manuscripts

Parchment manuscripts began to be used by Christians as early as the second century and became the dominant material for biblical texts by the third century. The durability of parchment allowed for the creation of more elaborate and long-lasting manuscripts, which were often produced by professional scribes.

Emperor Constantine’s Influence

The legalization of Christianity under Emperor Constantine in 325 C.E. had a profound impact on the production of biblical MSS. Constantine’s support for Christianity led to the commissioning of fifty copies of the Bible for the churches in Constantinople, his capital city. This marked a significant shift from the secretive and often makeshift copying of the Scriptures to more formal and systematic production processes.

The Spread and Preservation of Manuscripts

Parchment MSS have been found in many parts of Europe and the Middle East, with a few located in the United States. The spread of these manuscripts reflects the widespread acceptance and distribution of the Christian Scriptures throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.

Codex Alexandrinus

Codex Alexandrinus (A, 02), written in the fifth century, is an excellent example of an early parchment manuscript. It originally contained both the Old and New Testaments and is known for its attractive and formal handwriting. This codex was housed in Alexandria, Egypt, before being presented to the King of England in 1627.

Codex Bezae

Codex Bezae (D, 05), a fifth-century manuscript, features Greek and Latin texts on facing pages. This MS contains the Gospels and Acts and is housed in the library of Cambridge University. It is notable for its unique textual variations and is an important witness to the Western text-type.

Manuscript Designations and Classification

Manuscripts have been designated and classified in various ways over the years. About two hundred years ago, it became customary to designate uncial MSS by capital letters. When all the English letters had been used, Greek letters that differed from English were employed. In 1890, Caspar René Gregory devised a system where uncial MSS are identified by a number prefixed by a zero (e.g., 02, 048, 0250). Despite this system, many MSS are still commonly referred to by their letter designations.

Examples of Designations

א (Codex Sinaiticus [330-360 C.E.] Article #2
A (Codex Alexandrinus) [400-450 C.E.] Article #2
B (Codex Vaticanus) [300-330 C.E.] Article #2, #3, #4, #5, #6
C (Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus) [400-450 C.E.] Article #2
D (Codex Bezae) [400-450 C.E.] Article #2
D [Dp] (Codex Claromontanus) [500-600 C.E.]
E (Codex Basiliensis) [700-800 C.E.]
E [Ea] (Codex Laudianus 35) [500-600 C.E.]
0319 (Codex Sangermanensis) [c. 900 C.E.]

The Importance of Manuscript Discoveries

The discovery and study of these ancient MSS have significantly contributed to our understanding of the New Testament text. Each manuscript provides a snapshot of the text as it was transmitted and preserved at different times and places, offering insights into the history and development of the New Testament canon.

The Process of Textual Transmission

The transmission of the New Testament text involved numerous copies made over the centuries. Early scribes, often working under difficult conditions, endeavored to reproduce the text as accurately as possible. However, variations inevitably crept in, leading to the rich and complex manuscript tradition we have today.

Early Christian Scribes

Early Christian scribes were often not professional copyists, but believers who took on the task of copying Scriptures as an act of faith. Their dedication ensured the survival and dissemination of the New Testament writings, even though their work sometimes included unintentional errors and deliberate alterations.

The Original Reading

By examining the available evidence, including the earliest papyri and uncial manuscripts, a more accurate reconstruction of the original text of the New Testament can be made. The Alexandrian text-type, particularly as represented in Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, holds significant weight in this reconstruction due to its early date and textual consistency. However, all manuscript families contribute to the understanding of the New Testament’s textual history.

The study of the ancient records of the Greek New Testament is a complex and multifaceted discipline. It requires careful consideration of external evidence from manuscripts, internal evidence within the text, and historical context provided by early Church Fathers and other sources. Through this rigorous process, scholars can work towards a more accurate understanding of the original New Testament writings.

Minuscule Manuscripts

A significant portion of New Testament manuscripts comprises those written in minuscule handwriting. These manuscripts date from the ninth century to the invention of printing in the fifteenth century, with a few extending even later. Unlike the earlier uncial manuscripts, which were written in large, separate capital letters, minuscule manuscripts were penned in a more cursive and interconnected script. This evolution in writing style allowed for faster copying and more efficient use of space.

Characteristics and Preservation

Most minuscule manuscripts are written on parchment, although some of the later examples are on paper. The earlier minuscule manuscripts are generally more carefully written and less ornamented than those produced in later centuries. This distinction is evident in the quality and precision of the script, as well as the marginal notes and decorations that often accompany the text in later manuscripts.

There are nearly 2,900 known minuscule manuscripts. They are designated by numbers, such as Codex 23, Codex 457, and Codex 2035. These designations help scholars identify and refer to specific manuscripts in academic discussions and research.

Since most of the minuscules were copied later than the uncials, they are generally more removed from the original texts. However, this does not necessarily mean they are less reliable. The number of generations removed from the originals can vary. For example, a twelfth-century manuscript might be only ten copies from the original, while an eighth-century manuscript could be twenty copies removed. This variability highlights the importance of evaluating each manuscript on its own merits.

Notable Minuscules

Codex 33: Known as the “Queen of the Cursives,” this ninth-century manuscript contains most of the New Testament and is renowned for its reliable text.
Codex 1: A twelfth-century manuscript, it is considered one of the best among those used to prepare the first Greek New Testament published after the invention of printing.
Codex 565: Located in the public library of St. Petersburg, this manuscript is one of the most beautiful of all New Testament manuscripts, written in gold letters on purple parchment and prepared for the Empress Theodora.

Lectionaries

Early in the Christian era, specific sections of the New Testament were selected for reading in church services throughout the year. These passages were initially indicated in the margins of New Testament manuscripts. Eventually, these selected passages were compiled in the order they were to be read, resulting in manuscripts known as “lectionaries.”

Types of Lectionaries

There are two main types of lectionaries:

Full-Year Lectionaries: These contain a passage for every day of the year, beginning with Easter.
Weekend Lectionaries: These contain readings for Saturdays and Sundays only.

Most lectionaries contain passages from the Gospels, but many include readings from the Epistles, and some contain both Gospels and Epistles. These lectionaries are introduced by fixed phrases that fit the passage, such as “The Lord said to his disciples,” “The Lord said,” “At that time,” and “Brothers.”

Characteristics and Preservation

There are over 2,400 known lectionaries, with the earliest fragmentary examples dating from the fourth century. Most lectionaries, however, are from the minuscule period. Lectionaries are designated by the letter “L” or the abbreviation “Lect.” followed by a number, such as L225 or Lect. 1280.

Versions

In ancient times, books were not usually translated from one language into another. When translation did occur, it was often a loose and free rendering that provided little help in determining the exact words of the original text. The New Testament, however, was translated into several languages soon after it was written, reflecting the early spread of Christianity and the need to make the Scriptures accessible to various linguistic groups.

Latin Versions

Since Latin was the language of Rome, a Latin translation of the New Testament was needed early in the missionary work of the Christian church. Several Latin translations were likely made before the end of the second century, as evidenced by the considerable variation among surviving manuscripts. This early Latin translation is known as the Old Latin or the Itala.

Due to the increasing importance of the Roman church and the official status of Christianity in the Roman Empire, the variety of readings in the Old Latin manuscripts became problematic. In 382 C.E., Pope Damasus commissioned Jerome to revise the Latin Bible to align more closely with the Greek text. Jerome’s revision, completed with the help of other scholars, became known as the Latin Vulgate. The Latin Vulgate remained the official version of the Roman Catholic Church and is represented by about ten thousand known manuscripts.

Syriac Versions

Syriac, a language closely related to Aramaic, required an early translation of the New Testament for neighboring regions of Palestine. The Gospels were possibly first translated into Syriac in the middle of the second century in the form of the Diatessaron, a harmonized version of the four Gospels credited to Tatian. The Old Syriac, with two known manuscripts, was later superseded by the Peshitto in the early fifth century. The Peshitto excluded certain books not yet accepted as canonical by the Syriac church.

Coptic Versions

The gospel reached Egypt early, leading to translations of the New Testament into several dialects of the Egyptian language, or Coptic. The Sahidic dialect in the south received a translation in the early third century, while the Bohairic dialect of the north followed in the fourth century. These translations are invaluable for understanding the early textual tradition of the New Testament in Egypt.

Other Early Versions

Several other early versions hold significance for New Testament textual criticism:

Gothic: Translated by Bishop Ulfilas in the fourth century for tribes near the Danube River.
Armenian: A fifth-century translation using an alphabet developed by Mesrop.
Georgian: Also translated in the fifth century by Mesrop.
Slavonic: Credited to missionaries Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century, with the Cyrillic alphabet named in Cyril’s honor.

These versions, while translations, shed light on the Greek text from which they were made, offering critical insights into the textual history of the New Testament.

Patristic Quotations

The writings of the early Christian writers, commonly referred to as the Church Fathers, contain extensive quotations from the New Testament. These patristic quotations are remarkably numerous and are invaluable for reconstructing the New Testament text.

Importance and Use

The form in which a Church Father quoted a New Testament passage reveals the textual tradition known in a particular location and time. Careful analysis is required to determine whether the quotations were copied directly from a manuscript, recalled from memory, or intended as a reference or allusion.

Notable Church Fathers

Irenaeus (2nd century): Bishop of Lyons, his writings include many New Testament quotations.
Clement of Alexandria (2nd-3rd centuries): Known for extensive references to the New Testament.
Origen (3rd century): His works provide critical insights into the early text of the New Testament.
Eusebius Pamphili (4th century): His writings include numerous quotations and references.
John Chrysostom (4th century): Known for his eloquence and extensive use of the New Testament.
Cyril of Alexandria (5th century): His writings contain significant New Testament references.

Latin Fathers such as Tertullian (2nd-3rd centuries), Jerome (4th-5th centuries), and Augustine (4th-5th centuries) also provide valuable quotations.

Conclusion on the Original Reading

By examining the available evidence, including the earliest papyri and uncial manuscripts, internal evidence, and patristic quotations, scholars can reconstruct a more accurate text of the New Testament. The Alexandrian text-type, particularly as represented in Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, is given significant weight due to its early date and textual consistency. However, all manuscript families contribute to the understanding of the New Testament’s textual history.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).