How Did Esarhaddon Navigate the Turbulent Path to the Assyrian Throne?

The Complexities of Esarhaddon’s Early Life and Rise to Power

The early life of Esarhaddon, king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 681 to 669 B.C.E., is marked by a series of complex events and familial rivalries that shaped his path to the throne. Esarhaddon, whose name means “Ashur has given me a brother,” was thrust into a dangerous and politically charged environment from an early age, a situation that would influence his reign in profound ways.

Esarhaddon was the youngest son of King Sennacherib, a ruler known for his military campaigns and significant impact on the Assyrian Empire. Sennacherib’s reign, however, was marred by internal strife and a succession crisis that would ultimately lead to his assassination. Initially, Sennacherib had chosen his eldest son, Aššur-nādin-šumi, to succeed him. Aššur-nādin-šumi was appointed as the ruler of Babylon, a critical position that underscored his status as the heir to the Assyrian throne. However, this appointment would lead to a tragic end when the Elamites, in retaliation for Sennacherib’s military actions, captured and likely executed Aššur-nādin-šumi in 694 B.C.E.

The loss of his firstborn son forced Sennacherib to reconsider his succession plans. His second eldest son, Arda-Mulissu, was initially elevated to the position of crown prince, but in 684 B.C.E., Sennacherib made a sudden and unexplained decision to replace him with Esarhaddon. This unexpected change in the line of succession ignited a bitter rivalry between the brothers, particularly between Esarhaddon and Arda-Mulissu. The intensity of this rivalry is captured in the historical records and inscriptions left by Esarhaddon, where he recounts the reaction of his brothers to his appointment:

“Of my older brothers, the younger brother was I. But by decree of [the gods] Ashur and Shamash, Bel and Nabu, my father exalted me, amid a gathering of my brothers he asked Shamash, ‘is this my heir?’ and the gods answered, ‘he is your second self’. And then my brothers went mad. They drew their swords, godlessly, in the middle of Nineveh. But Ashur, Shamash, Bel, Nabu, Ishtar, all the gods looked with wrath on the deeds of these scoundrels, brought their strength to weakness and humbled them beneath me.”

This account highlights the divine justification that Esarhaddon sought to bolster his claim to the throne. In Assyrian culture, kingship was often seen as divinely ordained, with the gods playing a central role in legitimizing the ruler’s authority. Esarhaddon’s emphasis on the gods’ approval of his appointment was a strategic move to reinforce his right to rule and to undermine the legitimacy of his brothers’ claims.

The Assassination of Sennacherib and Esarhaddon’s Exile

The tension between the brothers escalated to a breaking point when Arda-Mulissu and another brother, Nabû-šarru-uṣur, assassinated their father, Sennacherib, on October 20, 681 B.C.E. This act of patricide was a shocking event that plunged the Assyrian Empire into a brief but intense civil war. The assassins likely hoped that the death of Sennacherib would clear the way for Arda-Mulissu to ascend the throne. However, their plan did not unfold as they had intended.

Esarhaddon, who had been exiled to the western provinces by his father for his own protection, was quick to act upon hearing of his father’s death. Sennacherib had likely anticipated the possibility of conflict between his sons, which is why he had sent Esarhaddon away from the capital. Esarhaddon, in turn, blamed his brothers for his exile, describing their actions with the following words:

“Malicious gossip, slander and falsehood they [i.e., Esarhaddon’s brothers] wove around me in a godless way, lies and insincerity. They plotted evil behind my back. Against the will of the gods they alienated my father’s well-disposed heart from me, though in secret his heart was affected with compassion, and he still intended me to exercise kingship.”

This sense of betrayal and injustice fueled Esarhaddon’s resolve to reclaim his rightful place as king. The assassination of Sennacherib by his own sons created a power vacuum, but it also alienated many of Arda-Mulissu’s potential supporters. The act of killing their father, particularly in a religious context within a temple, was viewed with deep revulsion by many, including the gods themselves, according to Esarhaddon’s account.

The delay in Arda-Mulissu’s coronation gave Esarhaddon the time he needed to gather an army. This army, composed of loyalists and those who were outraged by the assassination, met Arda-Mulissu’s forces in the region of Hanigalbat. The battle was decisive, with most of Arda-Mulissu’s soldiers deserting him and joining Esarhaddon’s ranks. The enemy generals fled, leaving Esarhaddon to march on Nineveh unopposed.

The Consolidation of Power and Execution of Conspirators

Six weeks after the death of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon was accepted as the new king of Assyria in Nineveh. His first actions as king were focused on securing his position and eliminating any remaining threats. Esarhaddon conducted a thorough purge of those involved in the conspiracy against his father. This purge extended beyond the immediate conspirators to include their families and any servants who had failed to protect Sennacherib. Esarhaddon’s account of these events, preserved in his inscriptions, reflects both his ruthlessness and his belief that his actions were divinely sanctioned:

“I entered into Nineveh, my royal city, joyfully, and took my seat upon the throne of my father in safety. The south wind blew, the breath of Ea, the wind whose blowing is favorable for exercising kingship. There awaited me favorable signs in heaven and on earth, a message of the soothsayers, tidings from the gods and goddesses. Continually [missing portion] and gave my heart courage. The soldiers, the rebels who had fomented the plot to seize the rulership of Assyria for my brothers, their ranks I examined to the last man and I laid a heavy penalty upon them, I destroyed their seed.”

This passage illustrates the combination of religious symbolism and political pragmatism that characterized Esarhaddon’s approach to kingship. The favorable winds and omens were seen as signs of divine approval, reinforcing his authority and justifying the harsh measures he took to secure his reign. The systematic destruction of the conspirators and their families was a brutal but effective strategy to eliminate any future challenges to his rule.

Esarhaddon’s purge of the conspirators and his consolidation of power set the tone for the rest of his reign. His experiences during this tumultuous period deeply influenced his attitudes and policies, particularly his mistrust of male relatives and officials. This mistrust would later manifest in the form of paranoia, a condition that plagued him throughout his reign.

The Paranoia of Esarhaddon: A Result of His Violent Ascent?

The paranoia that marked Esarhaddon’s reign can be traced back to the violent and treacherous events that surrounded his rise to power. His father’s assassination by his own brothers, coupled with the betrayal by those who were supposed to be loyal to the royal family, left Esarhaddon with deep-seated mistrust of those around him. This paranoia was not entirely unfounded, given the very real threats he faced from his male relatives and the political elites of the empire.

Esarhaddon’s distrust extended to his officials, governors, and even his own family members. He frequently sought the advice of oracles and priests, asking them to divine whether any of his relatives or officials harbored ill intentions toward him. This reliance on divination was not unusual in Assyrian culture, where kings often consulted the gods on matters of state. However, the specific focus on potential betrayal was a distinctive feature of Esarhaddon’s reign, reflecting his heightened sense of vulnerability.

Interestingly, Esarhaddon’s paranoia did not extend to his female relatives. His mother, Naqiʾa, and his daughter, Šērūʾa-ēṭirat, were among the most influential figures in his court, wielding considerable power and influence. This was unusual in Assyrian society, where women typically held limited political roles. The trust that Esarhaddon placed in his female relatives suggests that his paranoia was directed more toward the traditional power structures and the male-dominated elites who had betrayed him in the past.

Esarhaddon’s choice of residences also reflected his paranoia. He favored palaces that were heavily fortified and located on the outskirts of cities, away from the central administrative and cultic centers. For example, one of his main residences was a palace in Nimrud, originally constructed as an armory by Shalmaneser III nearly two hundred years earlier. This palace was located on a separate mound, providing a strategic advantage in terms of defense. Between 676 and 672 B.C.E., Esarhaddon further fortified this palace, modifying its gateways into impregnable fortifications that could seal the entire building off from the city. A similar palace was built in Nineveh, also located on a separate mound far from the city center.

These palatial fortifications were not just symbolic gestures of power but were practical measures designed to protect Esarhaddon from potential threats. The steep and narrow paths leading to the palaces, protected by several strong doors, made it difficult for any would-be assassins to gain access. These architectural features underscore the extent of Esarhaddon’s paranoia and his preoccupation with security.

The Debate Among Scholars: Was Esarhaddon Truly Paranoid?

Scholars have long debated the extent of Esarhaddon’s paranoia. Some have classified him as suffering from a paranoid personality disorder, particularly in light of his mistrustful behavior and the extreme measures he took to secure his safety. Others, however, have argued that Esarhaddon’s actions were rational responses to the very real dangers he faced. Paranoia, by definition, involves delusional and irrational thinking, but in Esarhaddon’s case, his fears were grounded in the reality of Assyrian politics, where betrayal and assassination were constant threats.

The frequent consultation of oracles and the emphasis on security in Esarhaddon’s reign can be seen as prudent measures rather than signs of mental illness. The violent and unstable environment in which Esarhaddon operated justified his cautious approach. His experiences during the succession crisis and the assassination of his father would naturally lead to a heightened sense of mistrust and a desire to protect himself from similar threats.

From a biblical perspective, the story of Esarhaddon echoes the broader themes of divine judgment and the consequences of sin that are prevalent in the Old Testament. The violent actions of his brothers, the betrayal of trust, and the resulting paranoia all reflect the moral and spiritual decay that often accompanied the pursuit of power in the ancient world. The Bible frequently warns of the dangers of pride, ambition, and the misuse of power, and Esarhaddon’s reign serves as a historical illustration of these principles.

For instance, Proverbs 29:25 states, “The fear of man lays a snare, but whoever trusts in Jehovah is safe.” Esarhaddon’s fear and mistrust, while understandable given his circumstances, ultimately led to a reign characterized by suspicion and insecurity. His reliance on oracles and fortifications, rather than on trust in Jehovah, highlights the limitations of human efforts to control one’s destiny in a world fraught with danger.

Esarhaddon’s reign, therefore, provides valuable lessons in the consequences of power struggles, the dangers of mistrust, and the importance of seeking divine guidance in times of uncertainty. While his achievements as a ruler are undeniable, the personal and psychological toll of his ascent to power is a reminder of the costs associated with leadership in a fallen world.

How Did Esarhaddon’s Reconstruction of Babylon Reflect His Political and Religious Strategy?

The Importance of Babylon in Esarhaddon’s Reign

Esarhaddon’s decision to focus on the reconstruction of Babylon was not merely an act of rebuilding a city; it was a strategic maneuver that carried deep political and religious significance. Babylon had long been a center of cultural and religious life in Mesopotamia, and its importance extended far beyond its physical boundaries. For over a millennium, Babylon had been the heart of southern Mesopotamian civilization, and its destruction by Sennacherib, Esarhaddon’s father, in 689 B.C.E. was a devastating blow to the region’s identity and pride.

Sennacherib’s campaign against Babylon was brutal and thorough. The city was razed, its temples desecrated, and the statue of Bel (Marduk) was taken to Assyria, symbolizing the subjugation of the Babylonian gods to the Assyrian pantheon. This act was intended to crush Babylonian resistance and assert Assyrian supremacy, but it also created a legacy of bitterness that would persist long after Sennacherib’s death.

Recognizing the importance of Babylon to the stability of his empire, Esarhaddon sought to repair the damage done by his father, both physically and symbolically. His efforts to rebuild Babylon were aimed at winning the loyalty of the Babylonian people and reestablishing the city as a vital part of the Assyrian Empire. Esarhaddon’s reconstruction of Babylon began shortly after he ascended to the throne, with the project being formally announced in 680 B.C.E.

The Scale and Scope of the Reconstruction Efforts

The scale of the reconstruction was immense, reflecting the significance that Esarhaddon placed on restoring Babylon. The city had been left in ruins after its destruction, with debris from the demolition of its buildings and temples scattered throughout. Esarhaddon’s building program involved the removal of this debris, the resettlement of the displaced Babylonian population, and the reconstruction of key religious and civic structures.

One of the central elements of this project was the restoration of the Esagila, the great temple complex dedicated to Bel. The Esagila was not only a religious center but also a symbol of Babylonian identity. Rebuilding this temple was crucial for Esarhaddon to demonstrate his respect for Babylonian traditions and to present himself as a legitimate ruler in the eyes of the Babylonian people.

In addition to the Esagila, Esarhaddon undertook the restoration of the Etemenanki, the towering ziggurat associated with the Esagila complex. The Etemenanki, often considered the biblical “Tower of Babel,” was one of the most iconic structures in ancient Mesopotamia, and its reconstruction was a symbol of the revival of Babylonian culture and religious life.

The restoration of Babylon also included the rebuilding of the city’s inner walls, which were essential for both defense and the reestablishment of Babylon as a significant urban center. These efforts were not merely about physical reconstruction; they were part of Esarhaddon’s broader strategy to integrate Babylon fully into the Assyrian Empire by restoring its former glory and earning the loyalty of its inhabitants.

Esarhaddon’s inscriptions from this period highlight his role as a restorer and protector, carefully avoiding any direct mention of Sennacherib’s destruction of the city. Instead, Esarhaddon attributed the city’s downfall to the anger of the gods, whom he claimed to appease through his rebuilding efforts. He presented himself as a king “ordained by the gods” to restore Babylon and to calm the divine wrath that had led to its destruction. This narrative allowed Esarhaddon to distance himself from the actions of his father and to present his rule as one of renewal and divine favor.

The Reception of Esarhaddon’s Reconstruction in Babylon

The reconstruction of Babylon was well received by its inhabitants, as evidenced by reports from Esarhaddon’s officials. These reports indicate that the Babylonians viewed Esarhaddon’s efforts positively, recognizing the return of what had been plundered and appreciating the resettlement of their people. One such report from a governor installed by Esarhaddon in Babylon confirms the favorable reception:

“I have entered Babylon. The Babylonians have received me kindly, and daily they bless the king, saying, ‘What was taken and plundered from Babylon, he has returned,’ and from Sippar to Bab-marrat the chiefs of the Chaldeans bless the king, saying, ‘(It is he) who resettled (the people) of Babylon.’”

This positive response was crucial for Esarhaddon’s broader goals of maintaining stability in the empire. By restoring Babylon, he not only secured the loyalty of the Babylonian people but also reinforced the idea that Assyrian rule could bring prosperity and protection, rather than just oppression and destruction.

The rebuilding of Babylon was a long-term project that extended beyond Esarhaddon’s lifetime. While he accomplished a great deal during his reign, including the near-complete restoration of the Esagila and the Etemenanki, some aspects of the reconstruction, such as the city walls, were likely completed by his successors. Nonetheless, the foundations laid by Esarhaddon were significant and set the stage for Babylon’s resurgence as a major cultural and religious center under later rulers.

Restoration of Other Southern Cities and Religious Statues

Esarhaddon’s commitment to restoring Babylon was part of a broader effort to secure the loyalty of the southern regions of his empire. In addition to the rebuilding efforts in Babylon, Esarhaddon sponsored restoration projects in other important cities in the south, such as Uruk, Larsa, and Sippar. These projects often involved the clearing of debris, the repair of temples, and the return of religious statues that had been captured during previous conflicts.

One of Esarhaddon’s early acts as king was to return the statues of various southern gods that had been held in Assyria since the time of Sennacherib. Although the statue of Bel remained in Assyria, Esarhaddon returned statues to cities such as Der, Humhumia, and Sippar-aruru. Later, statues were also returned to Larsa and Uruk. These acts of restitution were significant gestures that helped to mend the relationship between the Assyrian rulers and the southern cities, reinforcing Esarhaddon’s image as a restorer and protector of traditional religious practices.

In Uruk, for example, Esarhaddon cleared away debris and repaired the city’s Eanna temple, dedicated to the goddess Ishtar. Similar projects were undertaken in cities like Nippur, Borsippa, and Akkad, further demonstrating Esarhaddon’s commitment to restoring the religious and cultural heritage of the southern regions.

Balancing Northern and Southern Projects: A King of Both Assyria and Babylonia

While Esarhaddon’s efforts in the south were impressive and unprecedented, he did not neglect the northern heartland of Assyria. Although his southern projects were primarily focused on civic and religious restoration, his projects in the north included the construction and restoration of temples, palaces, and military fortifications. These efforts were likely intended to reassure the Assyrian people that their king was equally committed to the prosperity and security of the northern regions.

One of the key projects in the north was the repair of the temple of Ešarra in Assur, one of the chief temples of northern Mesopotamia. Esarhaddon also undertook similar projects in Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and in Arbela. These projects were vital for maintaining the loyalty of the Assyrian heartland, which was the military and political base of the empire.

Esarhaddon’s balancing act between his responsibilities as king of both Assyria and Babylonia is evident in the way he distributed his building efforts. While he was deeply committed to restoring Babylon and other southern cities, he ensured that his northern projects were significant enough to maintain the support of the Assyrian elite. This dual focus allowed Esarhaddon to present himself as a ruler who was capable of overseeing a vast and diverse empire, one that stretched from the northern reaches of Mesopotamia to the southern cities of Babylonia.

Esarhaddon’s Military Campaigns: Consolidating Power Through Force

Esarhaddon’s reign was not only marked by his reconstruction efforts but also by his military campaigns, which were crucial for consolidating his power and expanding Assyrian influence. The early years of his reign were particularly challenging, as he faced threats from both within and outside the empire.

One of the primary challenges came from the kingdom of Urartu, located to the north of Assyria. Urartu, under King Rusa II, was a sworn enemy of Assyria and continued to shelter Esarhaddon’s brothers, who had assassinated Sennacherib. Esarhaddon recognized the threat posed by Urartu and sought to neutralize it through a combination of military force and strategic alliances.

In 679 B.C.E., Esarhaddon formed an alliance with the Scythians, a nomadic people known for their cavalry, in an effort to dissuade the Cimmerians, another nomadic tribe, from attacking Assyria’s western borders. Despite this alliance, the Cimmerians invaded the westernmost provinces of the empire and penetrated further into Assyrian territory by 676 B.C.E. Esarhaddon responded by personally leading his troops in battle in Cilicia, where he successfully repelled the Cimmerians and claimed to have killed their king, Teušpa.

Around the same time, Esarhaddon faced a rebellion in Sidon, a city in the Levant that had recently been conquered by his father. The king of Sidon, Abdi-Milkutti, rebelled against Assyrian rule, believing that the new king had not yet consolidated his power. Esarhaddon marched his army along the Mediterranean coast and captured Sidon in 677 B.C.E., although Abdi-Milkutti initially escaped by boat. He was eventually captured and executed, along with another rebellious vassal king, Sanduarri of Cilicia. Esarhaddon celebrated his victory by having the heads of these kings displayed in a gruesome public spectacle in Nineveh.

The conquest of Sidon was significant because it demonstrated Esarhaddon’s ability to maintain control over his vassal states and to respond decisively to challenges to his authority. Sidon was reduced to an Assyrian province, and its lands were redistributed to loyal vassals, further consolidating Esarhaddon’s power in the region.

The War with Urartu and the Invasion of Shupria

Esarhaddon’s conflict with Urartu continued to escalate in the following years. Initially, he targeted the Mannaeans, a people allied with Urartu, but by 673 B.C.E., he was engaged in open warfare with the kingdom of Urartu itself. One of the key battles in this conflict was the invasion of Shupria, a vassal kingdom of Urartu located near Lake Van.

The king of Shupria had refused to hand over political refugees from Assyria, possibly some of the conspirators behind Sennacherib’s assassination. Although the Shuprian king eventually agreed to surrender the refugees, Esarhaddon considered the delay an affront and used it as a pretext to invade. The Assyrian army seized and plundered the city of Ubumu, the capital of Shupria, after a fire set by the defenders spread through the city. The political refugees were captured and executed, and Shupria was annexed into the Assyrian Empire.

This campaign against Urartu and its allies was part of Esarhaddon’s broader strategy to eliminate external threats to his rule and to secure the borders of his empire. By neutralizing Urartu and asserting control over its vassals, Esarhaddon ensured that his northern borders were secure and that his brothers could no longer pose a threat to his reign.

The Elamite Invasion of Babylonia and the First Invasion of Egypt

Esarhaddon’s military campaigns were not limited to the north and west; he also had to contend with threats from the east and south. In 675 B.C.E., the Elamites invaded Babylonia and captured the city of Sippar while the Assyrian army was campaigning in Anatolia. This invasion was a serious threat to Esarhaddon’s control over Babylonia, but it was abruptly ended by the death of the Elamite king, Khumban-khaltash II. The new Elamite king, Urtak, sought to repair relations with Assyria by returning stolen statues of gods and entering into an alliance with Esarhaddon.

Despite these successes, Esarhaddon’s reign was marked by one notable military failure: his first invasion of Egypt in 673 B.C.E. The Egyptians, under the Kushite Pharaoh Taharqa, had long been a thorn in Assyria’s side, sponsoring rebellions and dissent within the empire. Esarhaddon sought to eliminate this threat by launching a swift invasion of Egypt. However, the Assyrian army, exhausted from its rapid march, was defeated outside the Egyptian-controlled city of Ashkelon, forcing Esarhaddon to retreat.

This defeat was a significant setback for Esarhaddon, but it did not deter him from his goal of conquering Egypt. The failed invasion also highlighted the physical and mental toll that the constant warfare and stress of kingship were taking on Esarhaddon, setting the stage for the deterioration of his health in the later years of his reign.

Esarhaddon’s Deteriorating Health and Its Impact on His Reign

By the time of his first failed invasion of Egypt, Esarhaddon’s health had begun to deteriorate significantly. This posed a serious problem, as the Assyrian king was expected to be in perfect physical and mental health. Esarhaddon’s ailments included violent vomiting, fever, nosebleeds, dizziness, earaches, diarrhea, and a persistent skin rash that covered most of his body, including his face. These symptoms, combined with the constant stress of leadership and the death of his beloved wife Esharra-hammat in 672 B.C.E., left Esarhaddon in a state of deep depression.

The king’s deteriorating health was a matter of great concern at the royal court, as it was seen as a sign that the gods were displeased with him. In Assyrian culture, illness was often interpreted as divine punishment, and an ailing king could undermine the legitimacy of his rule. As a result, Esarhaddon’s condition was kept hidden from the public, with strict protocols ensuring that anyone who approached the king did so on their knees and veiled.

Esarhaddon’s physicians, some of the best in Assyria, were ultimately unable to diagnose or cure his ailments. The king’s chief exorcist, Adad-shumu-usur, who was responsible for Esarhaddon’s well-being, expressed the helplessness felt by the court in a letter to the king:

“As to what the king, my lord, wrote to me: ‘I am feeling very sad; how did we act that I have become so depressed for this little one of mine?’ Had it been curable you would have given away half your kingdom to have it cured! But what can we do? O king, my lord, it is something that cannot be done.”

This letter, along with other court documents, reveals the depth of Esarhaddon’s suffering and the despair felt by those around him. Despite the best efforts of his physicians and exorcists, Esarhaddon’s condition continued to worsen, leading him to fear that his death was near.

Esarhaddon’s declining health and depression had a significant impact on his reign, limiting his ability to lead effectively and placing additional strain on the already fragile stability of the empire. As his condition worsened, Esarhaddon began to make preparations for the succession, hoping to secure a peaceful transition of power to his sons, Ashurbanipal and Šamaš-šuma-ukin.

The Struggles of a Sick King: Esarhaddon’s Final Years

Esarhaddon’s final years were marked by a struggle to maintain his authority in the face of his deteriorating health. The death of his wife and their recently born child only added to his burdens, leaving him increasingly isolated and withdrawn. The king’s illness not only affected his physical capabilities but also his mental state, as he often spent days in his quarters without food, drink, or human contact.

The court documents from this period paint a picture of a king who was deeply aware of his own mortality and who feared that his condition would undermine his ability to rule. Despite these challenges, Esarhaddon continued to lead military campaigns and oversee the administration of his empire, relying heavily on his officials and family members to manage the day-to-day affairs of the state.

Esarhaddon’s efforts to maintain his authority despite his illness are a testament to his resilience and determination as a ruler. However, his declining health also highlights the vulnerabilities of a king who was expected to embody the ideals of strength and divine favor. In a culture where illness was seen as a sign of divine disfavor, Esarhaddon’s condition posed a significant threat to the stability of his reign.

The struggle to maintain authority in the face of illness is a theme that resonates throughout the history of ancient Near Eastern kingship. Esarhaddon’s reign, with its mix of great achievements and personal suffering, serves as a poignant example of the challenges faced by rulers in a world where power was often precarious and contingent upon the favor of the gods.

Conclusion: The Legacy of Esarhaddon’s Reign

Esarhaddon’s reign was one of contrasts, marked by both remarkable achievements and deep personal struggles. His efforts to rebuild Babylon and restore the southern cities of his empire were significant accomplishments that helped to secure the loyalty of the Babylonian people and to reestablish the city as a cultural and religious center. At the same time, his military campaigns, while largely successful, were accompanied by significant challenges, including a major defeat in Egypt and the constant threat of rebellion and invasion.

Esarhaddon’s deteriorating health and the personal tragedies he endured added a layer of complexity to his reign, influencing his decisions and shaping the way he was perceived by his contemporaries. Despite these challenges, Esarhaddon managed to maintain his authority and to secure a peaceful transition of power to his sons, ensuring the continuity of the Assyrian Empire.

Esarhaddon’s reign is a reminder of the complexities of kingship in the ancient world, where power was often fragile and dependent on a combination of personal strength, divine favor, and the ability to navigate the challenges of both internal and external threats. His legacy, while mixed, is one that reflects the enduring challenges of leadership in a world where the stakes were often life and death.

How Did Esarhaddon Secure His Succession and Conquer Egypt?

The Complexities of Securing Succession: Esarhaddon’s Strategic Moves

Esarhaddon, having ascended the Assyrian throne through a tumultuous and blood-soaked path, understood the gravity of ensuring a peaceful and undisputed transition of power upon his death. The memory of the civil strife that had marred his own rise to power, compounded by the treachery within his family, prompted him to take extraordinary measures to secure the future of his kingdom. Esarhaddon’s efforts in this regard were not merely a series of political maneuvers but reflected a deep awareness of the volatile nature of succession in the ancient Near East.

By 672 B.C.E., Esarhaddon’s sons were still minors, a significant concern given the potential for rival factions to challenge their claims to the throne. In an era where the strength of a kingdom was often measured by the might and decisiveness of its ruler, the youth of his sons posed a clear risk. Esarhaddon’s treaties, such as the one concluded with Ramataia, the ruler of the Median kingdom of Urakazabarna, illustrate his awareness of the various forces that could oppose his chosen successor. The treaty explicitly mentions potential threats, including Esarhaddon’s own brothers, uncles, cousins, and even “descendants of former royalty” or “chiefs or governors of Assyria.”

This list of potential adversaries reveals the intricate web of power relations within the Assyrian empire. Esarhaddon’s concern over “descendants of former royalty” might have stemmed from the fact that his grandfather, Sargon II, had seized the throne through usurpation. It is possible that descendants of earlier kings, potentially with claims to the throne, were still alive and could pose a challenge to Esarhaddon’s lineage.

In 674 B.C.E., Esarhaddon appointed his eldest son, Sin-nadin-apli, as crown prince, marking the first step in his succession plan. However, Sin-nadin-apli’s unexpected death just two years later threatened to plunge the empire into another succession crisis. This tragic event led Esarhaddon to innovate by appointing two crown princes: Shamash-shum-ukin, his eldest living son, as the heir to Babylon, and Ashurbanipal, a younger son, as the heir to Assyria. This decision to divide the empire was unprecedented, as the Assyrian king had traditionally held both titles simultaneously.

The Role of Family and Diplomacy in Succession Planning

The decision to designate Shamash-shum-ukin as the king of Babylon while Ashurbanipal would rule Assyria was likely influenced by the respective mothers of these sons. Although the identity of Shamash-shum-ukin’s mother is uncertain, she may have been of Babylonian origin, making her son a more acceptable ruler in the eyes of the Babylonians. In contrast, Ashurbanipal’s mother was likely of Assyrian descent, aligning him more closely with the Assyrian heartland. This strategic distribution of power aimed to satisfy both the Babylonian and Assyrian populations, thereby reducing the likelihood of rebellion in either region.

The treaties drawn up by Esarhaddon also reflect the careful balancing act he sought to achieve between his two sons. While Ashurbanipal was clearly the primary heir, expected to oversee the broader empire, the treaties also specified that he was not to interfere in the affairs of Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylon. This arrangement, though designed to ensure peace, contained the seeds of future conflict, as it suggested a division of power that might later be contested.

Esarhaddon’s mother, Naqiʾa, played a crucial role in securing Ashurbanipal’s succession. She ensured that potential rivals swore oaths to support Ashurbanipal’s rise to the Assyrian throne, further solidifying his claim. The importance of these oaths cannot be overstated in the context of Assyrian political culture, where loyalty was often tenuous, and oaths to the gods were considered binding and sacred.

In addition to these internal measures, Esarhaddon concluded succession treaties with at least six independent rulers in the east and several of his own governors outside the Assyrian heartland. These treaties were likely motivated by the possibility that Esarhaddon’s brothers, particularly Arda-Mulissu, were still alive and might seek to claim the throne. The existence of inscriptions suggesting that his brothers were alive as late as 673 B.C.E. underscores the ongoing threat they posed to Esarhaddon’s rule.

The Second Egyptian Campaign: Esarhaddon’s Quest for Glory

Esarhaddon’s first attempt to conquer Egypt in 673 B.C.E. had ended in a humiliating defeat. However, this setback did not deter him from his ambition to subjugate one of the most powerful and prestigious kingdoms of the ancient world. In the early months of 671 B.C.E., Esarhaddon launched a second, more carefully planned campaign against Egypt.

This time, Esarhaddon took no chances. The army assembled for the second Egyptian campaign was significantly larger and better prepared than the one used in 673 B.C.E. Esarhaddon also learned from his previous mistakes, marching his troops at a slower pace to avoid the exhaustion that had contributed to his earlier defeat.

As he made his way toward Egypt, Esarhaddon stopped in Harran, a major city in the western parts of his empire. There, a prophecy was revealed to him, predicting his success in the upcoming campaign. According to a letter sent to Ashurbanipal after Esarhaddon’s death, the prophecy involved the god Sin, who was enthroned on a wooden column with two crowns on his head. Esarhaddon, after placing the crowns on his own head, was told, “You shall go forth and conquer the world!” This prophecy likely bolstered Esarhaddon’s confidence as he marched into Egypt.

Three months after receiving this prophecy, Esarhaddon’s forces were victorious in their first battle against the Egyptians. However, despite this initial success and the favorable prophecy, Esarhaddon remained unconvinced of his own safety. Just eleven days after defeating the Egyptians, Esarhaddon performed the “substitute king” ritual, an ancient Assyrian method of protecting the monarch from imminent danger as foretold by omens.

The Ritual of the Substitute King and Its Consequences

The “substitute king” ritual was a significant aspect of Esarhaddon’s reign, reflecting his deep-seated fears and the precarious nature of kingship in Assyria. The ritual involved the king temporarily abdicating his position for a hundred days, during which a substitute, usually someone with mental deficiencies, took his place. This substitute king would sleep in the royal bed, wear the crown and royal garb, and eat the king’s food, while the real monarch went into hiding under the alias “the farmer.”

The purpose of this ritual was to redirect any malevolent forces or divine wrath intended for the king onto the substitute, who would be killed at the end of the hundred days regardless of whether anything had happened to him. This practice highlights the intense belief in divine intervention and omens that permeated Assyrian society, as well as Esarhaddon’s personal paranoia.

Esarhaddon had previously performed this ritual earlier in his reign, but the timing of its use during the Egyptian campaign is particularly notable. The ritual left Esarhaddon unable to command his army during a critical phase of the invasion. During this period of hiding, the civil administration of the empire was managed by his crown princes, and the military campaign in Egypt was likely overseen by his chief eunuch, Ashur-nasir.

Despite Esarhaddon’s absence, the Assyrian army achieved significant victories in Egypt, defeating the Egyptians in two additional battles and successfully capturing and plundering the Egyptian capital of Memphis. These victories culminated in the capture of Pharaoh Taharqa’s family, including his son and wife, who were sent back to Assyria as hostages.

In commemoration of his victory, Esarhaddon erected a victory stele, depicting himself in a majestic pose with a war mace in his hand, a vassal king kneeling before him, and the son of the defeated pharaoh with a rope around his neck. This image was a powerful symbol of Assyrian dominance and the subjugation of Egypt.

The Conspiracy of 671–670 B.C.E.: A Threat to Esarhaddon’s Rule

Shortly after his triumph in Egypt, Esarhaddon faced a new and unexpected challenge: a conspiracy that threatened to undermine his rule. The conspiracy was sparked by a prophecy that emerged in Harran, the same city where Esarhaddon had received the prophecy predicting his victory in Egypt. This new prophecy, however, foretold a very different future.

According to the prophecy, spoken by an ecstatic woman who served as the oracle of the god Nusku, “Kingship belongs to Sasî. I shall destroy the name and the seed of Sennacherib!” This declaration, which claimed that the kingship rightfully belonged to a figure named Sasî and that the descendants of Sennacherib (Esarhaddon’s father) were usurpers, provided a religious foundation for a potential revolt against Esarhaddon’s rule.

The identity of Sasî is shrouded in mystery, but he may have been connected to previous Assyrian royalty, possibly a descendant of Sargon II, Esarhaddon’s grandfather. If so, Sasî’s claim to the throne could have been perceived as legitimate by those who still harbored loyalty to the old royal line. The conspiracy quickly gained traction throughout the empire, with supporters possibly including Esarhaddon’s chief eunuch, Ashur-nasir.

Esarhaddon’s extensive network of informants, a product of his paranoia, quickly alerted him to the conspiracy. Reports indicated that conspirators were active not only in Harran but also in Babylon and the Assyrian heartland. Faced with this widespread threat, Esarhaddon performed the “substitute king” ritual for a second time in 671 B.C.E., just three months after his previous use of the ritual.

Once the ritual was complete, Esarhaddon emerged from hiding and launched a brutal crackdown on the conspirators. This was the second major purge of his reign, and it was characterized by extreme violence and ruthlessness. The fate of Sasî and the oracle who had proclaimed him king is unknown, but it is likely that they were captured and executed. The purge was so extensive that it severely disrupted the administrative structure of the empire, with no official being chosen to select the name of the year for the first few months of 670 B.C.E., an extremely rare occurrence in Assyrian history.

The conspiracy and its aftermath also led to significant changes in the security protocols of the Assyrian court. Esarhaddon introduced two new ranks into the court hierarchy, making it more difficult for anyone to meet with him. These measures further isolated the king, both physically and politically, as he sought to protect himself from future threats.

The Final Campaign Against Egypt and Esarhaddon’s Death

Despite surviving the conspiracy, Esarhaddon remained a deeply paranoid and sickly ruler. In 669 B.C.E., just a year after the conspiracy, he once again performed the “substitute king” ritual, indicating his continued fear of assassination or divine retribution. Around this time, Pharaoh Taharqa, who had been defeated and driven out of Egypt, reemerged from the south and inspired a new rebellion against Assyrian rule.

Esarhaddon received word of this rebellion and learned that even some of the governors he had appointed in Egypt had ceased to pay tribute and joined the rebels. Despite his deteriorating health, Esarhaddon prepared to lead a third campaign against Egypt, determined to crush the rebellion and reassert Assyrian dominance.

However, Esarhaddon never reached Egypt. He died unexpectedly in Harran on 10 Araḫsamnu 669 B.C.E. (approximately November 1 in the proleptic Julian calendar), before reaching the Egyptian border. The absence of any evidence to the contrary suggests that his death was natural, though it was likely unexpected given the meticulous plans he had made for his succession.

Esarhaddon’s death marked the end of an era, but his careful planning ensured that the transition of power to his sons, Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin, proceeded smoothly and without bloodshed. The success of his succession plan, at least in the immediate aftermath of his death, was a testament to the thoroughness of his preparations and the strength of his political strategy.

Diplomacy and Relations with the Arabs and Medes

In addition to his military campaigns and succession planning, Esarhaddon also engaged in extensive diplomacy with the various tribes and kingdoms surrounding Assyria. One of the key regions of interest was the Arabian Peninsula, where the loyalty of the Arabic tribes was crucial to the success of his campaigns in Egypt.

The support of the Arabic and other tribes of the Sinai Peninsula had been vital in Esarhaddon’s 671 B.C.E. Egyptian campaign. Recognizing the importance of maintaining this support, Esarhaddon worked to retain the loyalty of the Arabic tribes who had been subjugated by his father, Sennacherib, particularly around the city of Adummatu. The king of Adummatu, Hazael, paid tribute to Esarhaddon and sent him several presents, which Esarhaddon reciprocated by returning the statues of Hazael’s gods that had been seized by Sennacherib years earlier.

When Hazael died and was succeeded by his son Yauta, Esarhaddon recognized Yauta’s position as king and even aided him in defeating a rebellion against his rule. However, Yauta later rebelled against Esarhaddon, and although he was defeated by the Assyrian army, he successfully retained his independence until the reign of Ashurbanipal.

Esarhaddon’s diplomacy in the Arabian Peninsula also included the appointment of a woman named Tabua as “queen of the Arabs.” Tabua had been raised at the Assyrian royal palace and was allowed to return to her people to govern them. This appointment reflects Esarhaddon’s pragmatic approach to diplomacy, as he sought to maintain stability in the region through alliances and the placement of loyal rulers.

In another episode of diplomacy, Esarhaddon invaded the country of Bazza, located in the eastern Arabian Peninsula, in 676 B.C.E. after being petitioned for aid by a local king of a city called Yadi. The campaign resulted in the defeat of eight kings in the region and the granting of their territories to the king of Yadi, further expanding Assyrian influence in the Arabian Peninsula.

Esarhaddon also maintained complex relations with the Medes and Persians, who were vassals of Assyria during his reign. The Assyrian army had demonstrated its power to the Medes in a victory against the Median kings Eparna and Shidirparna near Mount Bikni before 676 B.C.E., leading many of the Medes to willingly swear allegiance to Assyria and bring gifts to Nineveh. Esarhaddon appointed Assyrian governors to their lands, further solidifying Assyrian control over the region.

However, relations with the Medes were not always peaceful. Records indicate that Median raids against Assyrian territory continued as late as 672 B.C.E., and Esarhaddon frequently mentioned the Medes as potential enemies in his consultations with oracles. One of Esarhaddon’s chief rivals in Media was a figure known to the Assyrians as Kashtariti, who may have been identical with Phraortes, the second king of the Median Empire.

Esarhaddon’s Family and Children: A Dynasty in the Making

Esarhaddon’s family life was as complex as his political career. Inscriptions indicate that Esarhaddon had multiple wives, though only one, Esharra-hammat, is known by name. Esharra-hammat was Esarhaddon’s queen, and she is chiefly known from sources discussing the mausoleum Esarhaddon constructed for her after her death. The identities of Esarhaddon’s other wives and which of his many children were born to them remain uncertain.

Esarhaddon fathered at least 18 children, a large number by ancient Assyrian standards. Contemporary letters discussing the king’s “numerous children” confirm that his family was viewed as unusually large. However, some of these children suffered from constant illness, similar to their father, and required permanent medical attention from the court physicians.

The known names of Esarhaddon’s children include Serua-eterat, his eldest daughter, who held a position of importance in Esarhaddon’s court and later in the court of Ashurbanipal. Sin-nadin-apli, Esarhaddon’s eldest son and crown prince from 674 B.C.E. until his unexpected death in 672 B.C.E., was originally intended to succeed his father but his untimely death led to the appointment of Shamash-shum-ukin and Ashurbanipal as co-heirs.

Shamash-shum-ukin, Esarhaddon’s second eldest son, became the king of Babylon, while Ashurbanipal, possibly the fourth eldest son, succeeded Esarhaddon as king of Assyria. Other sons of Esarhaddon include Shamash-metu-uballit, who was overlooked as heir due to his poor health; Ashur-taqisha-liblut, a sickly child who likely died before 672 B.C.E.; and Ashur-mukin-paleya, who became a priest in Assur during Ashurbanipal’s reign.

Esarhaddon’s large family, while a potential source of support for his rule, also presented challenges, particularly in the context of succession. The illnesses that plagued some of his children, combined with the complex dynamics of polygamous royal households, added layers of difficulty to Esarhaddon’s efforts to secure a stable future for his dynasty.

Assyria After Esarhaddon: The Rule of Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin

Esarhaddon’s careful planning for the succession paid off in the immediate aftermath of his death. Ashurbanipal became the king of Assyria, and after attending his brother’s coronation, Shamash-shum-ukin returned the stolen statue of Bel to Babylon and became the king of Babylon. Ashurbanipal sponsored a lavish coronation festival for his brother, signaling a smooth transition of power.

Despite his royal title, Shamash-shum-ukin was a vassal to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal continued to offer the royal sacrifices in Babylon, a duty traditionally performed by the Babylonian monarch, and the governors in the south were Assyrian. The army and guards present in the south were also Assyrians, reflecting the continued dominance of Assyria over Babylon.

For the early part of his reign, Shamash-shum-ukin focused on restoring fortifications and temples in Babylon, maintaining a relatively peaceful relationship with his brother. However, as Shamash-shum-ukin grew stronger, he became increasingly interested in asserting his independence from Ashurbanipal.

In 652 B.C.E., Shamash-shum-ukin allied with a coalition of Assyria’s enemies, including Elam, Kush, and the Chaldeans, and forbade Ashurbanipal from making further sacrifices in any southern city. This act of defiance led to a civil war that lasted for four years. By 650 B.C.E., Shamash-shum-ukin’s situation had become dire, with Ashurbanipal’s forces besieging key cities in Babylonia, including Sippar, Borsippa, Kutha, and Babylon itself.

Babylon finally fell in 648 B.C.E., and the city was plundered by Ashurbanipal. Shamash-shum-ukin died, possibly by suicide, marking the end of his rebellion and solidifying Ashurbanipal’s control over the empire.

Ashurbanipal’s long reign was characterized by continuous military campaigns against Assyria’s enemies and rivals. His efforts to maintain Assyrian dominance were largely successful, but after his death, the empire began to unravel. His sons, Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun, retained control of the empire for a time, but during their reigns, many of Assyria’s vassals declared independence.

From 627 to 612 B.C.E., the Assyrian empire effectively disintegrated, with a coalition of Assyria’s enemies, led by the Median Empire and the newly independent Neo-Babylonian Empire, pushing into the Assyrian heartland. In 612 B.C.E., Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, was plundered and razed, and the final king of Assyria, Ashur-uballit II, was defeated at Harran in 609 B.C.E., marking the end of the once-mighty Assyrian Empire.

The Historical Assessment of Esarhaddon’s Reign

Esarhaddon, along with his predecessor Sennacherib and his successor Ashurbanipal, is recognized as one of the greatest kings of Assyria. He is often characterized as a gentler and milder ruler compared to his father, Sennacherib, and took greater efforts to pacify and integrate the peoples he conquered. Despite his paranoia and the constant threat of rebellion, Esarhaddon’s reign is considered one of the most successful of the Neo-Assyrian period.

Esarhaddon’s achievements include the subjugation of Egypt, the successful and peaceful control of Babylonia, and his ambitious construction projects, such as the rebuilding of Babylon. His ability to secure the loyalty of diverse and often rebellious populations, as well as his diplomatic relations with neighboring tribes and kingdoms, demonstrated his skill as a ruler.

According to Assyriologist Karen Radner, Esarhaddon emerges more clearly as an individual from the historical record than most other Assyrian kings. While many Assyrian kings are known primarily from their royal inscriptions, the decade of Esarhaddon’s rule is exceptionally well documented due to the survival of numerous other documents, such as court correspondence, that provide insight into his reign.

Esarhaddon’s legacy also includes his influence on his son Ashurbanipal, who would become one of the most famous kings of Assyria. Ashurbanipal’s famous library, which gathered ancient Mesopotamian literary works, may have been inspired by Esarhaddon, who encouraged his son’s education and interest in collecting such works.

Esarhaddon’s Royal Titles and Boasts

Esarhaddon, like many Assyrian kings, used elaborate royal titles to assert his authority and divine favor. In an inscription describing his appointment as crown prince and his rise to power, Esarhaddon uses the following titles:

“Esarhaddon, the great king, king of Assyria, viceroy of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four regions of the earth, favorite of the great gods, his lords. Whom Assur, Marduk and Nabu, Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela, [missing portion] and whose name they named for the kingship.”

In another inscription, his titles read:

“Esarhaddon, the great king, the mighty king, king of the Universe, king of Assyria, viceroy of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, son of Sennacherib, the great king, the mighty king, king of Assyria, grandson of Sargon, the great king, the mighty king, king of Assyria; who under the protection of Assur, Sin, Shamash, Nabu, Marduk, Ishtar of Nineveh, Ishtar of Arbela, the great gods, his lords, made his way from the rising to the setting sun, having no rival.”

A longer version of Esarhaddon’s royal titles, preserved in another inscription, reads:

“I am Esarhaddon, king of the Universe, king of Assyria, mighty warrior, first among all princes, son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, grandson of Sargon, king of the universe, king of Assyria. Creature of Assur and Ninlil, beloved of Sin and Shamash, favorite of Nabu and Marduk, object of Queen Ishtar’s affection, heart’s desire of the great gods; the powerful, the wise, thoughtful and knowing, whom the great gods have called to kingship for the restoration of the images of the great gods, and the complete rebuilding of the shrines of every metropolis. Builder of the temple of Assur, restorer of Esagila and Babylon, who restored the images of the gods and goddesses dwelling therein, who returned the captive gods of the lands from Assur to their places and caused them to dwell in peaceful habitations, until he had completely restored all the temples and settled the gods in their shrines, to dwell there eternally.”

Esarhaddon’s use of these titles and his emphasis on his divine favor reflect the importance of religious legitimacy in Assyrian kingship. By presenting himself as the chosen and favored of the gods, Esarhaddon sought to reinforce his authority and justify his rule over the vast and diverse Assyrian Empire.

Final Thoughts on Esarhaddon’s Reign

Esarhaddon’s reign was marked by a complex interplay of military conquest, diplomatic maneuvering, and careful succession planning. Despite the challenges he faced, including his own deteriorating health and the constant threat of rebellion, Esarhaddon managed to maintain the stability of the Assyrian Empire and secure a peaceful transition of power to his sons.

His legacy as one of the greatest Assyrian kings is well-deserved, not only for his military achievements but also for his efforts to integrate and pacify the peoples he ruled. Esarhaddon’s reign offers valuable insights into the nature of kingship in the ancient Near East, where power was often precarious and dependent on a combination of personal strength, divine favor, and the ability to navigate the complex political landscape of the time.

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