Papyrus 98, designated as P98 in the Gregory-Aland numbering, is one of the earliest known extant Greek manuscripts of the Book of Revelation. This small but significant fragment preserves a portion of Revelation 1:13–2:1, offering crucial insight into the early textual history of this apocalyptic New Testament book. It is of special value not only because of its date—second century C.E. (approximately 125–175 C.E.)—but also due to its textual uniqueness, physical characteristics, and provenance.
While early papyri for the Gospels and Pauline Epistles are relatively more numerous, manuscripts for Revelation are rarer, especially from such an early period. Thus, P98 carries considerable weight in the textual history and criticism of the Apocalypse. With its distinctive variant readings, physical context, and paleographic dating, this fragment contributes meaningfully to our understanding of how the text of Revelation was transmitted in the second century C.E.
Discovery and Initial Misidentification
Papyrus 98 was first published by G. Wagner in 1971 in the second volume of P. IFAO (Papyrus de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale), where he presented it as a non-biblical document. Wagner initially misidentified the papyrus, believing it to be a private letter or a list of objects, based on the text written on the recto (front) side. That side of the scroll contained a Greek text that Wagner dated to the late first or early second century C.E. This misidentification was understandable, as Wagner did not recognize the reverse (verso) side as a biblical text at the time.
Later, Dieter Hagedorn, in a 1992 article published in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (vol. 92), correctly identified the verso text as a portion of the Book of Revelation, specifically Revelation 1:13–2:1. Upon recognizing the text, Hagedorn re-edited the papyrus, providing a transcription and analysis of the content. He affirmed Wagner’s early dating, maintaining that the document should be placed in the second century C.E., though he noted that the early third century could not be entirely ruled out. Nonetheless, the second-century date remains the dominant scholarly consensus based on the handwriting and material comparisons.
Current Location and Inventory Information
Papyrus 98 is currently housed at the Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale (IFAO) in Cairo, Egypt, under the inventory number P. IFAO inv. 237b [+a]. This institution holds several important Greek papyri, and P98 is among the most valuable due to its antiquity and biblical content.
Provenance and Paleographic Context
The provenance of P98 is almost certainly Egypt, as with many early Christian papyri. Egypt’s dry climate and the presence of active early Christian communities contributed to the preservation of biblical texts on papyrus. The manuscript was likely found as part of a papyrological excavation or private collection and later acquired or housed by the IFAO.
Paleographically, the script belongs to the category of documentary or informal hands, often referred to as a “common hand.” This is consistent with other second-century manuscripts. The text is written in a semi-cursive style, indicating that the scribe was literate but not a professional copyist using a literary or bookhand style. The script closely resembles the hands found in other second-century papyri such as P. Berol. 6849, P. Yale 171, P. Oxy. 3051, and P. Oxy. 5101, all of which originate from Egypt and share similar orthographic and material features. These affinities support both the dating and geographical origin of the manuscript.
Physical Description and Layout
The surviving fragment of P98 originally measured about 15 cm x 16 cm. [These are estimates based on the fragment’s damaged state (per Hagedorn), so the original scroll was larger.] It contains 20 lines of text, with approximately 38 to 42 letters per line. This line length suggests that the manuscript was written with a degree of compactness, likely to conserve space, which was a common practice in less formal or private copies.
The biblical text was written on the verso (the back side) of a previously used papyrus scroll. This practice, known as opisthography, was not uncommon in ancient Egypt, especially when writing materials were expensive or scarce. Similar usage is found in other early Christian papyri, including Papyrus 18, which also contains Revelation and is written on the verso of a reused scroll. The recto of P98 contains the original non-biblical content that Wagner mistakenly interpreted as a list or letter.
Greek Textual Content of P98
The preserved Greek text of P98 includes the following portion from the Book of Revelation, beginning at chapter 1, verse 13, and extending into the beginning of chapter 2. Here is the Greek transcription from the verso side:
περ]ι̣εζωσμμ̣εν̣[ον προς τοις μαστοις ζωνην χρυ]σεν [1:14] και η κ̣ε[φαλη αυτου και αι τριχες λευκαι ως] εριον λευκον [ως χιων και οι οφθαλμοι αυτου ως φλ]οξ πυρος [1:15] και [οι ποδες αυτου ομοιοι χαλκολιβανω ως] εν καμινω πε[πυρωμενης και η φωνη αυτου ως φωνη υδατων π̣[ολλων [1:16] και εχων εν τη δεξια χειρι αυτου αστερες [ζ̅ και εκ του στοματος αυτου ρομ φαια διστομος ο[ξεια εκπορευομενη και η οψις αυ το̣υ ως ο η̣λ̣ιος φ[αινει εν τη δυναμει αυτου [1:17] και οτε ει δ̣ο̣ν̣ αυτον ε[π]εσα [προς τους ποδας αυτου ως νεκρος και εθηκε̣ τ̣η̣ν̣ [δεξιαν αυτου επ εμε λεγων μη φοβ̣[ο]υ̣ ε̣γ̣ω̣ [ειμι ο πρωτος και ο εσχατος [1:18] και εγε νομεν̣ ν̣εκ̣ρ̣ο̣[ς και ιδου ζων ειμι εις τους αιωνας τ̣ω̣ν̣ α̣ι̣ω̣ν̣ω̣ν̣ [και εχω τας κλεις του θανατου και του α̣δ̣ο̣υ̣ [1:19] γ̣ρ̣α̣ψ̣ο̣ν̣ [ουν α ειδες και α εισιν και α μελλει γε̣ν̣ε̣[σ]θ̣α̣ι̣ [μετα ταυτα [1:20] το μυστηριον των ζ̅ α̣στερ̣ω̣ν̣ [ους ειδες επι της δεξιας μου και τας ζ̅ λυχνει[α]ς [τας χρυσας οι ζ̅ αστερες αγγελοι των ζ̅ εκκλησ̣ι̣ω̣ν̣ ε̣ι[σιν και αι λυχνιαι αι ζ̅ ζ̅ εκκλεσιαι εισ]ι̣[ν [2:1] τω αγγελω της εν εφεσω εκκλησιας γραψον ταδε λεγ ε̣ι̣ [ο κρατων τους ζ̅ αστερας εν τη δεξια αυτου ο
This transcription reveals a mostly standard Greek text with minor orthographic variations. The number seven (ζ̅) is abbreviated with the overline, a standard ancient Greek numeral form.
Textual Variants and Notable Omissions
One of the most important features of P98 is its reading in Revelation 1:18, where it omits the phrase “και ο ζων” (“and the living one”).
The omission of “και ο ζων” is fascinating, and I suggest scribal error, I would note the possibility of intentional theological streamlining (though less likely), as some scholars speculate for early variants. [Theological Angle Is More deeply Explain At the End]
The full standard reading of the verse as preserved in most Greek manuscripts and the Nestle-Aland 28th Edition is:
“και ο ζων, και εγενόμην νεκρός, και ιδού ζων ειμι…”
But P98 reads:
“και εγενόμην νεκρός, και ιδού ζων ειμι…”
This omission is rare and significant. Among Greek manuscripts, P98 is the only one known to omit the phrase “και ο ζων.” This reading is, however, found in the Latin Codex Gigas and in some Vulgate manuscripts. The fact that an early second-century Greek papyrus contains this shorter reading is notable. It raises questions regarding the textual tradition behind P98 and whether the omission reflects an early textual stream now largely lost or whether it was a simple scribal omission (possibly due to homoeoteleuton or parablepsis).
Nevertheless, the theological and doctrinal content of the verse remains unchanged. The resurrected and glorified Christ still declares His triumph over death, affirming His eternal life. Yet, this variant draws attention to the potential variability in early Revelation transmission, especially since Revelation was not as widely copied or canonically fixed in the second century as the Gospels or Pauline Epistles.
Textual Affinities and Classification
Due to its brevity, P98 cannot be definitively placed within any of the traditional New Testament textual families (Alexandrian, Western, Byzantine, or Caesarean). However, its early Egyptian provenance and the style of its text suggest a probable affiliation with a proto-Alexandrian or Alexandrian stream. It certainly does not reflect Byzantine characteristics, which are typically found in later manuscripts. Nor does it display the paraphrastic expansions characteristic of the Western text-type.
Its alignment with second-century Egyptian manuscripts, including P. Berol. 6849 and P. Yale 171, strengthens the case that P98 belongs to a local Egyptian textual tradition, possibly preceding the more stabilized Alexandrian recension. While it cannot serve as a base text for broader reconstruction of Revelation, it is nonetheless a critical witness that validates the early circulation of the text in Egypt.
Significance for Textual Criticism and Transmission of Revelation
Papyrus 98 is of great significance to New Testament textual criticism for multiple reasons. First, its early date provides confirmation that the Book of Revelation was being copied and circulated in Christian communities in Egypt by the mid-second century C.E., if not earlier. This challenges liberal critical assertions that Revelation was marginalized or not widely received in the early Church.
Second, its distinctive variant at Revelation 1:18 demonstrates the textual fluidity that could exist in early manuscripts. It also indicates that the transmission of Revelation had a different textual history than the rest of the New Testament, perhaps due to its complex symbolism, lack of widespread canonical acceptance in the early second century, or the difficulty of its apocalyptic language.
Lastly, the manuscript exemplifies the simplicity and devotion of early Christians who preserved and transmitted the inspired Word of God even under less-than-ideal circumstances, often using recycled materials and non-professional scribes. This humble fragment stands as testimony to the care with which early believers treated Scripture and their commitment to ensuring its transmission.
Excursion: An Intentional Theological Alteration in P98?
The omission of the phrase “καὶ ὁ ζῶν” (“and the living one”) in Revelation 1:18 within Papyrus 98 stands as a striking textual variant, and while the primary explanation offered in this study points to a scribal error—such as homoeoteleuton or parablepsis—another possibility merits consideration: an intentional theological adjustment by the scribe. Though less likely than an accidental omission, this perspective has been raised by some scholars and offers an intriguing lens through which to view the early transmission of Revelation.
In the standard Greek text, as preserved in most manuscripts and reflected in the Nestle-Aland 28th Edition, Revelation 1:18 reads: “καὶ ὁ ζῶν, καὶ ἐγενόμην νεκρός, καὶ ἰδοὺ ζῶν εἰμι εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων…” (“and the living one, and I became dead, and behold, I am alive forever and ever…”). This phrasing presents Christ proclaiming Himself as “the living one,” a title with deep theological resonance, echoing Old Testament descriptions of God (e.g., Joshua 3:10, Psalm 42:2 in the Septuagint) and affirming His eternal, pre-existent divine nature. Following this, His declaration of death and eternal life underscores His resurrection and triumph over mortality. In P98, however, the text reads simply: “καὶ ἐγενόμην νεκρός, καὶ ἰδοὺ ζῶν εἰμι εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων…” (“and I became dead, and behold, I am alive forever and ever…”), omitting the initial title “καὶ ὁ ζῶν.”
One potential theological motivation for such an omission could be a deliberate attempt to streamline the passage for rhetorical or doctrinal emphasis. By removing “καὶ ὁ ζῶν,” the scribe might have sought to sharpen the focus on the sequence of Christ’s death and resurrection—”I became dead, and behold, I am alive forever”—heightening the dramatic contrast without the additional descriptor. The phrase “the living one” could have been viewed as redundant in this context, since the subsequent “I am alive forever and ever” already conveys Christ’s eternal vitality. This adjustment might reflect an intent to present a more direct narrative of triumph, prioritizing the resurrection over an explicit statement of inherent divinity.
Alternatively, the omission could carry a nuanced theological implication. The title “the living one” emphasizes Christ’s pre-existent life, a concept tied to His divine identity. A scribe, perhaps influenced by the theological currents of his community, might have chosen to omit this phrase to center attention solely on Christ’s post-resurrection state, avoiding potential overemphasis on His eternal nature in a passage focused on His victory over death. In the second century, when Christological debates were emerging—though not yet fully formalized—such a choice could reflect a local preference for highlighting the apocalyptic significance of Christ’s resurrection rather than His ontological status. Conversely, the scribe might have aimed to sidestep any confusion in a community where “the living one” carried specific theological weight, adapting the text to align with its interpretive or liturgical use.
Another possibility ties this variant to the practical context of early Christian communities. If P98 originated from a setting where Revelation was read aloud or taught, the omission of “καὶ ὁ ζῶν” might have suited a liturgical pattern that emphasized Christ’s death and eternal life as a proclamation, omitting extra titles to maintain focus on the apocalyptic message. In Egypt, where P98 likely emerged, such adaptations could have been shaped by the needs of a congregation or the preferences of its leaders, reflecting the fluidity of the text in its early circulation.
Nevertheless, this hypothesis of intentional theological alteration remains less probable than a mechanical scribal error. Several factors weigh against it. First, early scribes were more prone to accidental omissions than deliberate deletions, particularly in a text as complex and symbolically rich as Revelation. Homoeoteleuton, where the scribe’s eye skipped from “ζῶν” to “νεκρός” due to similar endings, or parablepsis, an eye-skip across the line, provides a simpler explanation consistent with the informal, semi-cursive hand of P98. Second, the manuscript shows no other clear evidence of systematic theological editing across its preserved text, suggesting the omission is an isolated anomaly rather than part of a broader agenda. Third, the overwhelming retention of “καὶ ὁ ζῶν” in nearly all other Greek witnesses—such as Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus—indicates that this phrase was standard, with P98’s reading standing alone among Greek manuscripts. Its alignment with the Latin Codex Gigas and some Vulgate manuscripts might suggest a later harmonization or independent error rather than a deliberate theological tradition stemming from P98.
Scholars such as David Aune and Juan Hernández Jr., who have explored Revelation’s textual history, occasionally note the possibility of intentional changes in early manuscripts, given the book’s unique style and limited canonical stability in the second century. However, for P98’s specific omission, the consensus—supported by figures like Philip Comfort and Larry Hurtado—leans heavily toward scribal error, citing the manuscript’s non-professional character and the mechanical plausibility of the variant’s origin. The theological streamlining angle, while fascinating, remains a minority speculation, often posed as a hypothetical rather than a primary conclusion.
This excursion does not overturn the scribal error explanation but enriches the discussion by acknowledging an alternative view. The omission of “καὶ ὁ ζῶν” in P98, whether accidental or intentional, underscores the dynamic nature of Revelation’s early transmission, inviting further reflection on how second-century Christians preserved and interpreted this apocalyptic text.
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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