How Does the Authorship and Composition of First Samuel Illuminate the Transition from Theocracy to Monarchy?
Who Were the Authors of First Samuel?
The authorship of First Samuel is traditionally attributed to multiple contributors, each serving as a prophet and historian during the critical transition of Israel’s governance from a theocracy under the judges to a monarchy beginning with King Saul. The primary contributors are Samuel, Gad, and Nathan, each of whom held divinely appointed positions that equipped them to faithfully document Israel’s history.
Samuel’s Role as Primary Author
Samuel, whose name means “Name of God,” was born to Hannah, a devout woman who dedicated him to Jehovah’s service from infancy (1 Samuel 1:20, 28). Samuel’s life was marked by unwavering dedication to Jehovah, beginning with his time serving under Eli the priest at Shiloh (1 Samuel 2:18, 3:1). As both a judge and prophet, Samuel was instrumental in leading Israel spiritually and militarily, guiding the people back to Jehovah when they had strayed into idolatry and interceding for them in times of crisis (1 Samuel 7:3-9). Samuel’s unique experience as the last judge and as the first prophet in Israel’s monarchy period made him ideally suited to record these events. According to tradition, Samuel authored the first 24 chapters of First Samuel, covering the period of his life and ministry up until his death (1 Samuel 25:1).
Samuel’s account begins with the spiritual conditions in Israel during the time of the judges, marked by cycles of disobedience and divine deliverance, and leads to the establishment of a monarchy. His direct involvement in anointing both Saul and David as kings (1 Samuel 10:1; 16:13) underscores the theological and historical significance of his writings, as he was God’s appointed messenger to announce Israel’s shift from judges to a human king. This transition was a pivotal moment for Israel, reflecting both the people’s desire for a visible leader and Jehovah’s allowance of a king under His ultimate rule (1 Samuel 8:7).
Gad’s Role as Samuel’s Successor
After Samuel’s death, the prophetic responsibility for recording Israel’s history passed to Gad, as indicated in 1 Chronicles 29:29, where it states, “As for the affairs of David the king, the first ones and the last, there they are written among the words of Samuel the seer and among the words of Nathan the prophet and among the words of Gad the visionary.” Gad was a trusted advisor to David and is called “David’s seer” (2 Samuel 24:11). His role as a prophet and close confidant of David positioned him to document the unfolding events of Israel’s early monarchy, including the challenges and triumphs of David’s rise to power and Saul’s eventual decline.
As a prophetic historian, Gad had direct access to the royal court and observed Israel’s struggles with obedience to Jehovah, particularly as Saul’s reign became marked by disobedience and jealousy. Gad’s writings would have reflected the divine perspective on these events, emphasizing the consequences of Saul’s rejection of Jehovah’s command and David’s gradual emergence as Jehovah’s chosen leader. Gad’s role emphasizes the importance of prophetic authority in Israel’s history, as he guided David on matters of warfare, worship, and divine judgment (1 Samuel 22:5; 2 Samuel 24:11-14).
Nathan’s Contribution to the Historical Record
Nathan, another prophet during David’s reign, is also credited with contributing to the book’s content, as he was closely involved with David’s rule and known for his boldness in confronting the king. Nathan famously rebuked David after his sin with Bathsheba, demonstrating his commitment to upholding Jehovah’s righteousness over royal authority (2 Samuel 12:7-12). His courage and dedication to Jehovah’s standards exemplify the integrity that characterized the prophetic office, as he did not hesitate to call even the king to account for sin.
As a chronicler of Israel’s monarchy, Nathan provided an essential perspective on the moral and spiritual dimensions of kingship. His writings would have included reflections on the Davidic Covenant, wherein Jehovah promised that David’s throne would endure forever, establishing the theological foundation for the Messiah’s lineage (2 Samuel 7:12-16). Nathan’s contributions underline the divine guidance that directed Israel’s history and prepared the nation for the future hope of the Messiah.
The Period and Purpose of First Samuel
First Samuel provides a historical record of the critical period from the close of the judges’ rule through the early monarchy. The text not only chronicles events but serves a greater theological purpose by illustrating Israel’s transition from a theocracy under Jehovah’s direct rule to a monarchy under an earthly king.
The Unified Work of First and Second Samuel
Originally, the books of First and Second Samuel were a single text in the Hebrew Scriptures, known simply as “Samuel.” This unified work was later divided into two books during the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek in the Septuagint, primarily due to the expanded length required by the Greek language. This division was subsequently adopted in the Christian tradition, resulting in the familiar First and Second Samuel.
The events recorded in First Samuel cover approximately 95 years, from around 1105 B.C.E. to 1010 B.C.E. This period spans the time from Samuel’s birth to the end of Saul’s reign, setting the stage for David’s rule. The book’s completion in the early 10th century B.C.E. aligns with the accounts of Israel’s transition from the era of the judges to the institution of the monarchy, a time of significant theological and political development. This shift reveals Israel’s struggle between reliance on Jehovah as their true King and their desire to conform to the political structures of surrounding nations (1 Samuel 8:19-20).
Major Events and Themes: From Samuel to Saul and David
The book’s narrative begins with the birth and early life of Samuel, demonstrating Jehovah’s response to Israel’s moral and spiritual decline during the time of the judges. Samuel’s role as judge, prophet, and priest positioned him as Jehovah’s chosen leader to restore the people’s focus on covenant faithfulness. Through Samuel, Jehovah performed mighty acts, leading Israel in repentance and delivering them from their enemies, the Philistines (1 Samuel 7:3-13).
However, as Samuel grew older, the people demanded a king, desiring to be like other nations (1 Samuel 8:5). Jehovah permitted this request but warned them of the consequences of having a human king, a decision that would ultimately reveal the limitations of earthly rule compared to Jehovah’s sovereign governance. Saul’s anointing as Israel’s first king marked a turning point, as Saul initially enjoyed Jehovah’s favor and achieved military successes. Yet Saul’s repeated disobedience led to his rejection by Jehovah, culminating in the loss of his dynasty and Jehovah’s choice of David as his successor (1 Samuel 13:13-14; 15:22-23).
David’s anointing is a central event in First Samuel, emphasizing Jehovah’s sovereignty in choosing leaders based on the heart rather than outward appearance (1 Samuel 16:7). David’s early years, marked by faithfulness and reliance on Jehovah, contrast sharply with Saul’s increasing jealousy and descent into rebellion. The narrative of David and Goliath (1 Samuel 17) illustrates David’s trust in Jehovah’s power, foreshadowing the strength and faithfulness that would characterize his kingship.
The Theological Significance of Israel’s Transition to Monarchy
First Samuel provides valuable insights into the theological implications of Israel’s shift from a theocracy to a monarchy. This transition reflects both the people’s desire for a tangible leader and Jehovah’s ultimate authority over Israel, even under a human king.
Israel’s Desire for a King and Jehovah’s Sovereignty
The people’s demand for a king reflects their desire for a visible, human leader who would lead them in battle and establish a stable governance structure. This request stemmed partly from the failures of Samuel’s sons, who acted unjustly as judges, but it also revealed a deeper lack of trust in Jehovah’s direct rule (1 Samuel 8:3-5). Jehovah’s response through Samuel revealed His displeasure, as He said, “They have not rejected you, but they have rejected me from being king over them” (1 Samuel 8:7, UASV).
Jehovah’s decision to grant the people a king despite this rejection demonstrates His willingness to work within Israel’s choices while also guiding history toward His purposes. Saul’s anointing and subsequent rejection underscore the fact that Jehovah’s authority remains paramount, as He retains the right to establish or remove kings based on their faithfulness. This principle is emphasized in Samuel’s words to Saul, “To obey is better than sacrifice, and to listen than the fat of rams” (1 Samuel 15:22, UASV). The establishment of the monarchy did not diminish Jehovah’s sovereignty; rather, it served as an opportunity for the people to learn the limitations of human authority compared to divine rule.
David’s Anointing as Jehovah’s Chosen King
David’s anointing marks a pivotal moment in Israel’s history, as it signifies Jehovah’s choice of a king “after his own heart” (1 Samuel 13:14, UASV). Unlike Saul, who was chosen based on the people’s criteria for kingship, David was chosen by Jehovah, highlighting the importance of inner character and faithfulness. David’s humility and trust in Jehovah, as demonstrated in his refusal to harm Saul even when given the opportunity, reveal his reverence for Jehovah’s anointed leader and his understanding of divine authority (1 Samuel 24:6).
David’s anointing also sets the stage for the Davidic Covenant, wherein Jehovah promises to establish David’s throne forever, ultimately pointing to the Messiah’s coming through David’s lineage. This covenant, though fully elaborated in 2 Samuel, begins with Jehovah’s choice of David and underscores the divine purpose underlying the monarchy.
The Role of Prophetic Guidance in the Monarchy
Throughout First Samuel, prophetic guidance plays a crucial role in Israel’s monarchy. Samuel, Gad, and Nathan serve as Jehovah’s messengers, providing counsel, correction, and divine perspective to Israel’s leaders. Samuel’s rebuke of Saul for disobedience and Nathan’s confrontation of David over his sin with Bathsheba in 2 Samuel illustrate the prophets’ role as guardians of Israel’s covenant relationship with Jehovah.
These prophets remind Israel that the monarchy is not an autonomous institution but one that remains accountable to Jehovah’s standards. The prophetic office’s significance continues throughout Israel’s history, with prophets calling kings and people alike to covenant faithfulness. This framework emphasizes that, despite the presence of a human king, Jehovah remains Israel’s ultimate Ruler, a theme that resonates throughout First Samuel and beyond.
EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).
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